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.^:- .., ,. ^ t!rfeif^*, "^ a:-^ .*;, J' ^ v- ^r 



Modern 
Locomotive Engineering 

With Questions and Answers 



A plain, practical Treatise on the Construction, Care and Management 
of Modem Locomotives. Boiler Construction as applied to Loco- 
motives dealt with in detail. All the leading types of Valves and 
Valve-gear fully described. Valve setting in all its details. 
An entire chapter devoted to a study of the Indicator and 
its application to the Locomotive. The different tjrpes ; 
of Compound Locomotives receive especial atten- 
tion. Locomotive Equipments, including Elec- 
tric Headlights and Mechanical Stokers. 
Particular attention is given to the im- 
portant subject of Breakdowns, and 
what to do in cases of emergency. 

The Air Brake 

Including both the Westinghouse and New York Systems 



CALVIN F. SWINGLE, M. E. 

Author of the 20th Century Hand Book for Steam Enjfineers and 

Electricians. Steam Boilers, their Construction, 

Care and Managrement, Etc., Etc, 




CHICAGO 
FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., Publishers 



T 3 Cd^T 
\ 0^ \ "5 



Copyright 1911 

BY 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE 



Copyright 1913 

BY 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. 




/> 



©CI.a;{5 4I«7 



INTRODUCTION 

The young man who starts on his business career by 
looking for an easy job is not likely to ever have, or at 
least to hold, any position of great responsibility for 
a very long period of time. To many unthinking per- 
sons the job of a locomotiv>. engineer appears to be a- 
soft snap. They do not realize the tremendous re- 
sponsibility resting upon 'Tie shoulders ot tnis man, 
who, by years of hard work and study combined, has 
finally succeeded in gaining the knowledge and experi- 
ence required to enable him to guide his powerful 
machine safely over its route. It is universally con- 
ceded that there is no one machine that has done more 
towards the civilization and advancement of mankind 
generally, than has the locomotive, and it is a worthy 
ambition of any young man to aspire to be a locomo- 
tive engineer. But if he desires to make a success of 
it he should remember that there is work to do — lots 
of it — brain work as well as hand work. In the follow- 
ing pages the author has adopted a style somewhat 
different from the majority of books intended for the 
use of locomotive engineers and firemen. 

The primary or elementary features pertaining to 
the operation of locomotives will be first taken up, and 
the discussion will gradually progress through all the 
various stages in the making of a first-class engineer. 
A large number of books for engine men are gotten up 
in the form of a catechism, the answers immediately 
following the questions. The author believes that the 
catechetical form is not so helpful as that of having a 
list of questions, but no answers, arranged at the close 

9 



lo INTRODUCTION 

of each chapter. The student is thus constrained to 
search for the answers, which will always be found in 
the preceding chapter, and he will thus have the mat- 
ter more firmly fixed in his mind than he would if he 
has the answers ready made for him. 

And now with the earnest and sincere hope that the 
book may prove to be of great benefit to all into whose 
hands it may come, the author respectfully dedicates it 
to the locomotive engineers and firemen of America 

C. F. S. 



AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE COMPANY 

ENGINEERINC DEPARTMENT 

CLASSIFICATION OF LOCOMOTIVES 

(wHYTE'S system; 



040 ^ O O 


A WHEEL SWITCHER 


060 ^ OOO 


6 


0660^ OOO OOOaRT.culated 


080 A OOOO 


H WHETL SWITCHER 


240 ^oOO 


4 COUPLED 


260 Ao OOO 


MOGUL 


280 Ac, OOOO 


CONSOLIDATION 


2100 JnOOOOC; 


DclCAPOD 


440 JooOO 


8 WH..,^L 


460 ^onOOO 


lO 


480 ^ooOOOO 


12 


042 A OOn 


/i COUPLED 4 TRAILING 


062 A OOOn 


6 


082 A OOOOo 


S 


044 ^OOoo 


FORNEY 4 COUPLED 


064 A OOOoo 


6 


046 A OOnnn 


-d • ■■ 


066 A OOO on n 


6 


242 ^oOOo 


COLUMBIA 


262 JJnOOOn 


PRAIRIE 


282 ^o OOOOo 


a COUPLED DOUBLE ENDER 


2102 ^oOOOOOf 


310 


244 ^oOOoo 


A 


264 ^o OOO no 


6 


284 Jn OOOO or 


J, 


246 JoOOooo 


4 


266 ^oOOOooo 


6 " •■ •■ 


442 JooOOo 


ATLANTIC 


462 ^ooOOOo 


PACIFIC 


444 ^ooOOoo 


4 COUPLED CDUBLE ENDER 


^64 ^onOOOoo 


6 


^^6 JooOOooo 


^ " .... 


466 ^ooOOOoooe 



The locomotive classification adopted by the American Locomotive Company is based oa 
the representation by numerals of the number and arrangement of the wheels conmiencing at 
the front. Thus 260 means a Mogul and 460 a ten wheel engine, the cipher denoting that no 
trailing truck is used. 

,„„ '^^^ *^°^''l weight is expressed in 1,000 of pounds. Thus an Athuitic locomotive weighing 
1/6,000 pounds would be classified as a 442-17G tyi)e. If the engine is Compound tlie letter C 
should be substituted for the dash thus 442 C 176. If tanks are used in place of a separate 
tender the letter T should be used in jilace of the dash. Thus a double end suburban locomo- 
tive with two \j;heeled leading truck, six drivers and six wheeled rear truck, weighing 214,000 
pounds, would be a 266 T 214 type. 

1 II 



CHAPTER I 

FIREMAN'S DUTIES 

One of the most important duties of a fireman is to 
form the habit of being "on time," if possible. He 
should be on his engine at least thirty minutes before 
the engine leaves the house. He will then have time 
to get everything in good shape. 

First see that the water supply is right, then the 
coal wet down, cab swept out and windows cleaned, 
oil cans all filled and in their places, and lamps 
cleaned and filled with oil. He should also be sure 
that all needed supplies, such as flags, lanterns, torpe- 
does, waste, etc., are on hand, and of the right kind. 

Another important point, and one in which he is 
particularly interested, is that the engine is supplied 
with the proper fire tools — clinker bar, ash pan hoe, 
slice bar, and such other tools as are needed for the 
proper manipulation of a fire. 

It is the duty of the roundhouse men to see that the 
sand-box is filled with clean, dry sand, but it is well 
enough for the fireman to have an eye to that also. 

For the beginner, especially, there are a great many 
details to be learned, and he should get in touch with 
the engineer as soon as possible and keep in touch 
with him. In fact, the engineer and fireman should 
always work together, and strive to be of mutual help 
to each other in every possible way. 

After getting the engine out of the roundhouse and 
before starting to take her around to the train, he 
should note carefully that all the switches that he will 
pass are properly lined up and that the track is clear. 



FIREMAN'S DUTIES 13 

The engine bell should always be rung before start- 
ing, and be kept ringing while the engine is moving 
through the yards. Before starting from a terminal 
station the fireman should carefully prepare his fire — 
see that it is burning brightly and that it is heavy 
enough to prevent the exhaust from pulling it out of 
the fire-box when starting out. The depth of fire that 
should be carried on the grate bars depends upon the 
kind of fuel to be used. If soft coal is the fuel, a fire, 
ten to twelve inches deep should be carried. If hard 
coal is used, the fire should not be so deep. 

Before leaving a terminal the fireman should care- 
fully read the train orders and be certain that he under- 
stands them thoroughly. Out on the road he should 
use his eyes in watching the steam gauge and water 
glass, also try to familiarize himself with the grades 
and hills. Some engines steam better with the fire a 
little deeper along the sides and in the corners of the 
fire-box, allowing the center of the fire to be more 
shallow. If there is a brick arch or a water table in 
the fire-box, care should be taken that plenty of space 
be*maintained between it and the fire. At the begin- 
ning of the run the fire is clean, and may be kept a 
little deeper without danger of clogging. 

While the engineer is pulling out of a station and 
working her up to speed, the fireman should watch his 
fire closely and keep adding a good supply of coal, as 
there is danger of the fire being broken by the sharp, 
heavy exhaust. After a good rate of speed has been 
attained and the engineer has hooked his reverse lever 
back, the coal should be added to the fire often and in 
small quantities at a time, two scoopfuls at each fire 
being sufficient, always waiting until the black smoke 
emitted from the stack disappears or at least changes 



14 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINELRING 

to a light gray color before throwing in a fresh fire, 
and then placing the coal in the brightest spots. If 
the train is light, one shovelful at a fire is enough. 
No set of rules for firing can be laid down that will 
apply to all conditions. The best rule, especially for 
a man new in the service, is to always be ready to 
receive suggestions from the engineer, who has passed 
through all the various phases of a fireman's appren- 
ticeship and knows, or at least ought to know, his 
engine thoroughly and how to get the best service out 
of her. Therefore the fireman should always work 
under the instructions of the engineer; in fact, never 
do anything while on duty without first knowing that 
it would meet with his approval. 

Care should be exercised in the regulation of the 
ash pan dampers for admitting air under the grates. 
The fireman should study closely the requirements of 
his fire in this respect. If too small a volume of air 
is admitted the fire will not burn as lively as it should, 
and if too much air enters the fire-box the gases will 
be chilled. Keep the ash pan clean and the grates 
will last longer. 

As the exhaust is the life breath of the locomotive, 
it might be well at this point to explain why it creates 
such a tremendous draft. The reason is, because of the 
volume and velocity of the steam as it issues from the 
exhaust nozzles. The air and gases in the stack are 
carried out or forced out of the stack by the exhaust, 
and this creates a partial vacuum in the smoke arch, 
into which the air and gases pass from the fire-box 
through the flues. Fresh air is also being forced into 
the fire-box through the grates and other apertures by 
the itmospheric pressure. The blower operates upon 
t^f same principle, although on a much smaller scale. 



FIREMAN'S DUTIES 



15 



It may be used to urge the fire when the engine is not 
working steam. The blower should also be used while 
cleaning the fire; it will clear the dust and ashes from 
the flues. If the engine is pulling a passenger train 
and the engineer is about to make a stop at a station, 
the fireman should, as soon as the throttle is closed, 



Umm^ 1^ 1^ |yj 1^ |yi 



^X^ix^^x~Dx~XE^j:E5[£5:]g^ 



I 1 c=) I — n 



riTTrT^If 



cm cm (=1 1=) izn c=) !=d ir=i cm tm cd 



1=1 C=3 I ) I 1 



^^ 



Figure 1 



put on the blower lightly and open the fire door one- 
half inch, just sufificient to allow a small volume of air 
to enter the fire-box above the fire. This will prevent 
the engine from throwing out a great volume of dense 
black smoke while making the stop. 

As the grate bars are a part of the engine with which 



i6 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



the fireman is particularly interested, a brief descrip- 
tion of the various types will be here given. The old- 
fashioned grate bars for burning wood are too familiar 
to need describing, being simply plain cast iron sta- 
tionary bars with narrow slots between them. For 
soft coal various styles of rocking grates are used. 
Figs. I and 2 show plan and sectional views of rocking 
grates. The method of shaking is also illustrated in 
Fig. 2, together with the dump grate at the front to be 




Figure 2 



used when cleaning the fire. For burning hard coal a 
larger grate area is required than with soft coal, for 
the reason that a hard coal fire must be kept more 
shallow than a soft coal fire. The grate for hard coal 
is long, and instead of being made of cast iron it con- 
sists of horizontal wrought iron water tubes in connec- 
tion with the water space, thus permitting a free 
circulation of water through them. This plan not 
only prevents the grates from burning out, but it also 



FIREMAN'S DUTIES 



17 



serves to utilize a portion of heat that would otherwise 
be wasted. 

Fig. 3 shows a plan and Fig. 4 an elevation of a set 
of water grates. Provision is made for drawing or 
cleaning the fire, by making every fourth or fifth tube 
solid and allowing it to project clear through both 
walls of the back end of the fire-box through thimbles 
inserted for that purpose. These solid tubes have rings 
on their back ends by which they may be withdrawn, 
and the front end rests upon a bearing bar. 



^■ "M M M M M M M B M W n^ N 



!H 



M M M M M M M M M M M M-^ 



Figure 3 



The tubes of a water grate are made water-tight by 
being caulked into the inside sheet at the front and 
back ends of the fire-box. 

About twenty square feet of grate surface is needed 
to burn one ton of soft coal per hour. 

As the steam gauge is an instrument that is particu- 
larly interesting to the fireman, it is fitting that a short 
description of it be inserted here. There are different 
types of steam gauges in use, but the one most com- 



i8 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



monly used, and which no doubt is the most reliable, is 
known as the Bourdon spring gauge. This gauge con- 
sists of a thin, curved, flattened metallic tube, closed 
at both ends and connected to the steam space of the 
boiler by a small pipe, bent at some portion of its 
'length into a curve or circle that becomes filled with 
water of condensation, and thus prevents the hot live 
steam from coming directly in contact with the spring, 
while at the same time the full pressure of steam in 



mi lo o o o o 

obbbbteoop 

o o o o ol 




oooooooooooo 
oooooooooooo 



o o o o o o o D D — cr 



u 



Figure 4 

the boiler acts upon the spring, tending to straighten 
it. The end or ends of the spring being free to move, 
and connected by suitable geared rack and pinion with 
the pointer of the gauge, this hand or pointer is caused 
to move across the dial, thus indicating the pressure 
of steam per square inch in the boiler. When there is 
no pressure in the boiler the hand should point to o. 

Steam gauges should be tested frequently by com- 
paring them with a test gauge that has been tested 
against a column of mercury. 



FIREMAN'S DUTIES 



19 



The safety valve, or pop valve as it is more familiarly 
known, is another very important part of a locomotive 
with which the fireman has business. The object 
aimed at in equipping a locomotive boiler, or any 
other boiler, with a safety valve is that the steam 
pressure may be kept within a safe limit. There 
should always be two pop valves on a locomotive 
boiler, so that if one becomes corroded and sticks to 
its seat the other one will act, thus insuring safety. 

The principle of a pop valve's action is this: It is 
held to its seat by a coil spring that has previously 
been adjusted to the required amount of resistance. 
When the pressure under the valve exceeds the resist- 
ance of the spring, the valve will rise from its seat 
and allow the steam to escape until the pressure is 
lower than the resistance of the spring. The valve 
will then close at once. 

When the fire becomes dull and heavy, caused by 
ashes accumulating on the grate bars, the grates should 
be shaken up, which is best done while the engine is 
working at a moderate speed, or at least when the 
blower is on. The ash pan should be kept clean and 
free from ashes. This will allow a free draft of air 
and prevent the burning out of the grate bars. 

The fireman should endeavor while out on the run to 
keep as even a temperature as possible in the fire-box, 
and this can only be done by firing light and often, 
keeping the grates free by shaking and by watching the 
water level closely. He should have and keep his 
mind constantly upon his work, always striving to do 
better to-day than he did yesterday, and his reward is 
sure to come. 

Upon arriving at the end of the run he should take 
in his flags, or blow out his lamps, and see that the 



20 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

engine has sufficient fire and water to last until the 
nostler gets around. 

One of the duties that a fireman owes to himself, as 
well as to his employers, is that he utilize his spare 
moments in the study of the theory of combustion, the 
composition of coal, the nature of heat, and various 
other problems connected with the generation of 
steam. He will be called upon to undergo an exam- 
ination as to his knowledge of these questions at some 
stage of his apprenticeship, and the more intelligence 
he displays and the more thorough his answers, the 
faster will be his promotion. Therefore the author 
considers it fitting and proper that a space be given 
over at this point for the discussion of these impor- 
tant subjects. 

Combustion. One of the main factors in the combus- 
tion of coal is the proper supply of air. Air is com- 
posed of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen, in the 
proportion, by volume, of 21 per cent of oxygen and 
79 per cent of nitrogen, or by weight, 23 per cent of 
oxygen and JJ per cent of nitrogen. 

The composition of pure dry air is as follows: 

By volume, 20.91 parts O. and 79.09 parts N. 

By weight, 23.15 parts O. and 76.85 parts N. 

Air is a mixture and not a chemical combination of 
these two elements. The principal constituent of coal 
and most other fuels, whether solid, liquid or gaseous, 
is carbon. Hydrogen is a light combustible gas and, 
combined either with carbon or with carbon and 
oxygen, in various proportions, is also a valuable con- 
stituent of fuels, notably of bituminous coal. The 
heating value of one pound of pure carbon is rated at 
14,500 heat units, while one pound of hydrogen gas 
contains 62,000 heat units. 



FIREMAN'S DUTIES 



31 



Analysis of coal shows that it contains moisture, 
fixed carbon, volatile matter, ash and sulphur in 
various proportions according to the quality of the 
coal. The following table will show the composition 
of the principal bituminous coals in use in this country 
for steam purposes. Two samples are selected from 
each of the great coal producing states, with the 
exception of Illinois, from which four were taken. 

Table i 



State 


Kind of Coal 


Moist- 
ure 


Vola- 
tile 
Matter 


Fixed 
Carbon 


Ash 


Sul- 
phur 


Pennsylvania 


Youghiogheny 


1.03 


36.49 


59.05 


2.61 


0.81 


•♦ 


Connellsville 


1.26 


30.10 


59.61 


8.23 


0.73 


West Virginia 


Quinimont 


0.76 


18.65 


79.26 


I. II 


0.23 


" 


Fire Creek 


0.61 


22.34 


75.02 


1.47 


0.56 


E. Kentucky 


Peach Orchard 


4.60 


35-70 


53.28 


6.42 


i.oS 


" 


Pike County 


I. So 


26.80 


67.60 


3.80 


0.97 


Alabama 


Cahaba 


1.66 


33.28 


63.04 


2.02 


0.53 


•• 


Pratt Co.'s 


1.47 


32.29 


59.50 


6.73 


1.22 


Ohio 


Hocking Valley 


6.59 


35.77 


49.64 


8.00 


1.59 


" 


Muskingum " 


3-47 


37.88 


53.30 


5.35 


2.24 


Indiana 


Block 


8.50 


31.00 


57.50 


3.00 




* ' 


'* 


2.50 


44-75 


51.25 


1.50 




W. Kentucky 


Nolin River 


4.70 


33-24 


54.94 


11.70 


2.54 


<( 


Ohio County 


3.70 


30.70 


45.00 


3-16 


1.24 


Illinois 


Big Muddy 


6.40 


30.60 


54.60 


8.30 


1.50 




Wilmington 


15.50 


32.80 


39.90 


11.80 




'* 


" screenings 


14.00 


2L.00 


34.20 


23.80 






Duquoin 


8.90 


23.50 


60.60 


7.00 





The process of combustion consists in the union of 
the carbon and hydrogen of the fuel with the oxygen 
of the air. Each atom of carbon combines with two 
atoms of oxygen, and the energetic vibration set up 
by their combination is heat. Bituminous coa] con- 
tains a large percentage of volatile matter which is 
released and flashes into flame when the coal is thrown 



22 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

into the furnace, and unless ^air is supplied in large 
amounts at this stage of the combustion there will be 
an excess of smoke and consequent loss of carbon. 
On the other hand, there is a loss in admitting too 
much air, because the surplus is heated to the tempera- 
ture of the furnace without aiding the combustion and 
will carry off to the stack just as many heat units as 
were required to raise it from the temperature at which 
it entered the fire-box to that at which it leaves the 
flues. Some kinds of coal need more air for their 
combustion than do others, and good judgment and 
close observation are needed on the part of the fireman 
to properh^ regulate the supply. 

The quantity of air required for the combustion of 
one pound ot coal is, by volume, about 150 cu. ft.; by 
weight, about 12 lbs. 

The temperature of the fire-box is usually about 
2500°, in some cases reaching as high as 3000°. The 
temperature of the escaping gases should not be much 
above nor below 400 ' F. for bituminous coal. 

In order to attain the highest economy in the burning 
of coal in boiler furnaces two factors are indispensable, 
viz., a constant high furnace temperature and quick 
combustion, and these factors can only be secured by 
supplying the fresh coal constantly just as fast as it is 
burned, and also by preventing as much as possible the 
admission of cold air at the furnace. The nitrogen in 
the atmosphere does not promote combustion, but it 
enters the fire-box along with the oxygen, and the heat 
required to raise its temperature to that of the other 
gases is practically wasted, and as has already been 
explained, if a surplus of cold air is allowed to pass 
into the fire-box the waste of heat becomes stiil 
greater. 



FIREMAN'S DUTIES 23 

Heat. All matter, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, 
consists of molecules or atoms, which are in a state of 
continual vibration, and the result of this vibration is 
neat. The intensity of the neat evolved depends upon 
the degree of agitation to which the molecules are sub- 
ject. Until as late as the beginning of the nineteenth 
century two rival theories in regard to the nature of 
heat had been advocated by scientists. The older of 
these theories was that heat was a material substance, 
a subtle elastic fluid termed caloric, and that this fluid 
penetrated matter as water penetrates a sponge. 
But this theory was shown to be false by the wonder- 
ful researches and experiments of Count Rumford at 
Munich, Bavaria, in 1798. 

By means of the friction between two heavy metallic 
bodies placed in a wooden trough filled with water, 
one of the pieces of metal being rotated by machinery 
driven by horses, Count Rumford succeeded in raising 
the temperature of the water in two and one-half 
hours from its original temperature of 60° to 212° F., 
the boiling point, thus demonstrating that heat is not 
a material substance, but that it is due to vibration or 
motion, an internal commotion among the molecules 
of matter. This theory, known as the Kinetic theory 
of heat, has since been generally accepted, although 
it was nearly fifty years after Rumford advocated it in 
a paper read before the Royal Society of Great Britain 
in 1798, before scientists generally became converted 
to this idea of the nature of heat, and the science of 
Thermo Dynamics was placed on a firm basis. 

During the period from 1840 to 1849 Dr. Joule made 
a series of experiments which not only confirmed the 
truth of Count Rumford 's theory that heat was not a 
material substance but a form of energy which may be 



24 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

applied to or taken away from bodies, but Joule's 
experiments also established a method of estimating 
in mechanical units or foot pounds the amount of that 
energy. This latter was a most important discovery, 
because by means of it the exact relation between heat 
and work can be accurately measured. 

The first law of thermo dynamics is this: Heat and 
mechanical energy or work are mutually convertible. 
That is, a certain amount of work will produce a cer- 
tain amount of heat, and the heat thus produced is 
capable of producing by its disappearance a fixed 
amount of mechanical energy if rightly applied. The 
mechanical energy in the form of heat which, through 
the medium of the steam engine, has revolutionized 
the world, was first stored up by the sun's heat mil- 
lions of years ago in the coal, which in turn, by com- 
bustion, is made to release it for purposes of mechan- 
ical work. 

The general principles of Dr. Joule's device for 
measuring the amount of work in heat are illustrated 
in Fig. 5. It consisted of a small copper cylinder con- 
taining a known quantity of water at a known tempera- 
ture. Inside the cylinder and extending through the 
top was a vertical shaft to which were fixed paddles 
for stirring the water. Stationary vanes were also 
placed inside the cylinder. Motion was imparted to 
the shaft through the medium of a cord or small rope 
coiled around a drum near the top of the shaft and 
running over a grooved pulley or sheave. To the free 
end of the cord a known weight was attached. This 
weight was allowed to fall through a certain distance, 
and in falling it turned the shaft with its paddles, 
which in turn agitated the water, thus producing a cer- 
tain amount of heat. To illustrate, suppose the weight 



FIREMAx\'S DUTIES 25 

to be 77.8 lbs., and that by means of the crank at the 
top end of the shaft it has been raised to the zero mark 
at the top of the scale. (See Fig. 5.) One pound of 
water at 39.1° F. is ooured into the copper cylinder, 





^''aht77j/^[_^^Z 



P ~ fiadd.(es 



I 



/ 

3 
f 

-i 
- 1 



Figure 5 



which is then closed and the weight released. At the 
moment the weight passes the 10 ft. mark on the scale 
the thermometer attached to the cylinder will indicate 
that the temperature of the water has been raised one 
degree. Then multiplying the number of pounds in 



26 LOCOMOTIVE EXGIXEERIXG 

the weight by the distance in feet through which it fell 
will give the number of foot pounds of work done. 
Thus, 77.8 lbs. X 10 ft. = 77S foot pounds. 

The heat unit or British thermal unit (B. T. U.) is 
the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature 
of one pound of water one degree, or from 39° to 40° 
F. , and the amount of mechanical work required to 
produce a unit of heat is 778 foot pounds. Therefore 
the mechanical equivalent of heat is the energy re- 
quired to raise 'j'jZ lbs. one foot high, or 77.8 lbs. 10 ft. 
high, or I lb. 778 feet high. Or again, suppose a one- 
pound weight falls through a space of 778 ft. or a 
weight of 778 lbs. falls one foot, enough mechanical 
energy would thus be developed to raise a pound of 
water one degree in temperature, provided all 
the energy so developed could be utilized in churn- 
ing or stirring the water, as in Joule's machine. 
Hence the mechanical equi\-alent of heat is 778 foot 
pounds. 

Specific Heat. The specific heat of any substance is 
the ratio of the quantity of heat required to raise a 
given weight of that substance one degree in tempera- 
ture to the quantity of heat required to raise an equal 
weight of water one degree in temperature when the 
water is at its maximum density, 39.1° F. To illus- 
trate, take the specific heat of lead, for instance, 
which is .031, while the specific heat of water is i. 
That means that it would require 31 times as much 
heat to raise one pound of water one degree in tem- 
perature as it would to raise the tem.perature of a 
pound of lead one degree. 

The following table gives the specific heat of differ- 
ent substances in which engineers are most generally 
interested. 



FIREMAN'S DUTIES 27 

Table 2 

Water at 39.1* F i.ooo 

Ice at 32° F 504 

Steam at 212° F 480 

Mercury ; 033 

Cast iron 130 

Wrought iron 113 

Soft steel 116 

Copper 095 

Lead 03 1 

Coal 240 

Air 238 

Hydrogen 3.404 

Oxygen 218 

Nitrogen 244 

Sensible Heat and Latent Heat. The plainest and 
most simple definition of these two terms is that given 
by Sir Wm. Thomson. He says: "Heat given to a 
body and warming it is sensible heat. Heat given to 
a body and not warming it is latent heat.'' Sensible 
heat in a substance is the heat that can be measured in 
degrees of a thermometer, while latent heat is the heat 
in any substance that is not shown by the thermometer. 

To illustrate this more fully, a brief reference to 
some experiments made by Professor Black in 1762 
will no doubt make the matter plain. It will be 
remembered that at that early date comparatively little 
was known of the true nature of heat; hence Professor 
Black's investigations and discoveries along this line 
appear all the more wonderful. He procured equal 
weights of ice at $2° F. and water at the same tempera- 
ture, that is, just at the freezing point, and placing 
them in separate glass vessels, suspended the vessels in 
a room in which the uniform temperature was 47° F. 
He noticed that in one-havj ^our the water had in- 
creased 7° F. in temperature, but that twenty half 
hours elapsed before all of the ice was melted. There- 
fore he reasoned that twenty times more heat had 



28 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

entered the ice than had entered the water, because at 
the end of the twenty half hours, when the ice was all 
melted, the water in both vessels was of the same tem- 
perature. The water, having absorbed 7° of heat during 
the first half hour, must have continued to absorb heat 
at the same rate during the whole of the twenty half 
hours, although the thermometer did not indicate it. 
From this he calculated that 7° x 20 = 140° of heat had 
become latent or hidden in the water. 

In another experiment Professor Black placed a 
lump of melting ice, which he estimated to be at a 
temperature of 33° F. on the surface, in a vessel con- 
taining the same weight of water at 176° F. , and he 
observed that when the whole of the ice had been 
melted the temperature of the water was 33° F., thus 
proving that 143° of heat (176° — 33°) had been 
absorbed in melting the ice and was at that moment 
latent in the water. By these two experiments Pro- 
fessor Black established the theory of the latent heat 
of water, and his estimate was very near the truth, 
because the results obtained since that time by the 
greatest experimenters show that the latent heat o^ 
water is 142 heat units, or B. T. U. 

Black's experiment for ascertaining the latent heat 
in steam at atmospheric pressure was made in the fol- 
lowing simple manner: He placed a flat, open tin dish 
on a hot plate over a fire and into the dish he put a 
small quantity of water at 50° F. In four minutes the 
water began to boil, and in twenty minutes more it 
had all evaporated. In the first four minutes the tem- 
perature had increased 212° - 50° = 162°, and the tem- 
perature remained at 212° throughout the twenty 
minutes that it required to evaporate all the water, 
despite the fact that the water had been receiving 



FIREMx\IS'b DUTIES 29 

heat during this period at the same rate as during the 
first four minutes. He therefore reasoned that in the 
twenty minutes the water had absorbed five times as 
much heat as it had in the four minutes, or 162° x 5 = 
810°, without any sensible rise in temperature. There- 
fore the 810° became latent in the steam. Owing to 
the crude nature of the experiment Professor Black's 
estimate of the number of degrees of latent heat in 
steam was incorrect, as it has been proven by many 
famous experimenters since then that the latent heat 
of steam at atmospheric pressure is 965.7 B. T. U. 

It will thus be perceived that what is meant by the 
term latent heat is that quantity of heat which becomes 
hidden or latent when the state of a body is changed 
from a solid to a liquid, as in the case of melting ice, 
or from a liquid to a gaseous state, as with water 
evaporated into steam. But the heat so disappearing 
has not been lost; on the contrary it has, while becom- 
ing latent, been doing an immense amount of work, as 
can easily be ascertained by means of a few simple 
figures. It has been seen that a heat unit is the quan- 
tity of heat required to raise one pound of water one 
degree in temperature and also that the mechanical 
equivalent of heat, or, in other words, the mechanical 
energy stored in one heat unit, is equal to 778 foot 
pounds of work. 

A horse power equals 33,000 ft. lbs. of energy in 
one minute of time, and a heat unit = 778 - 33,000 = 
.0236, or about 4^ of ^ horse power. The work done 
by the heat which becomes latent in converting one 
pound of ice at 32° F. into water at the same tempera- 
ture = 142 heat units X 778 ft. lbs. = 110,476 ft. lbs., 
which divided by 33,000 equals 3.34 horse power. 
Again, by the evaporation of one pound of water from 



30 LOCOMOTIVE EXGIXEERIXG 

32" F. into steam at atmospheric pressure, 965.7 units 
of heat become latent in the steam and the work done 
= 963.7x778 = 751,314 ft. lbs. = 22.7 horse power. It 
will thus be seen what tremendous energy' lies stored 
in one pound of coal, which contains from 12,000 to 
14,500 heat units, provided a'.' the heat could be 
utilized in an engine. 

Total Heat of Evaporation. In order to raise the 
temperature of one pound of water from the freezing- 
point, 32' F.. to the boiling point. 212" F., there must 
be added to the temperature of the water 212" — 32' = 
180". This represents the sensible heat. Then to 
make the water boil at atmospheric pressure, or, in 
other words, to evaporate it, there must still be added 
965.7 B. T. U., thus 180-965.7= 1. 145. 7. or in round 
numbers 1.146 heat units. This represents what is 
termed the total heat of evaporation at atmospheric 
pressure and is the sum of the sensible and latent heat 
in steam at that pressure. But if a thermometer were 
held in steam evaporating into the open air, as, for 
instance, in front of the spout of a tea kettle, it would 
indicate but 212" F. 

When steam is generated at a higher pressure than 
212". the sensible heat increases and the latent heat 
decreases slowly, while at the same time the total heat 
of evaporation slowly increases as the pressure in- 
creases, but not in the same ratio. As, for instance. 
the total heat in steam at atmospheric pressure is 1,146 
B. T. U. , while the total heat in steam at 100 lbs. 
gauge pressure is 1,185 ^- T. U., and the sensible tem- 
perature of steam at atmospheric pressure is 212*^, 
while at loo lbs. gauge pressure the temperature is 33S 
and the latent heat is 876 B. T. U. See Table 4. 

Water. The elements that enter into the composi- 



FIREMAN'S DUTIES 31 

tion of pure water are the two gases, hydrogen and 
oxygen, in the following proportions: 

By volume, hydrogen 2, oxygen i. 
By weight, " li.i, " 88.9. 

Perfectly pure water is not attainable, neither is it 
desirable nor necessary to the welfare of the human 
race, because the presence of certain proportions of air 
and ammonia add greatly to its value as an agent for 
manufacturing purposes and for generating steam. 
The nearest approach to pure water is rain water, but 
even this contains 2.5 volumes of air to each 100 vol- 
umes of water. Pure distilled water, such for instance 
as the return water from steam heating systems, is not 
desirable for use alone in a boiler, as it will cause cor- 
rosion and pitting of the sheets, but if it is mixed with 
other water before going into the boiler its use is 
highly beneficial, as it will prevent to a certain degree 
the formation of scale and incrustation. Nearly all 
water used for the generation of steam in boilers con- 
tains more or less scale-forming matter, such as the 
carbonates of lime and magnesia, the sulphates of lime 
and magnesia, oxide of iron, silica and organic mat- 
ter, which latter tends to cause foaming in boilers. 

The carbonates of lime and magnesia are the chief 
causes of incrustation. The sulphate of lime forms a 
hard ''rystalline scale which is extremely difficult to 
remov^e when once formed on the sheets and tubes of 
boilers. Of late years the intelligent application of 
chemistry to the analyzing of feed waters has been of 
great benefit to engineers and steam users, in that it 
has enabled them to properly treat the water with 
solvents either before it is pumped into the boiler or 
by the introduction into the boiler of certain scale pre- 
venting compounds made especially for treating the 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



particular kind of water used. Where it is necessary 
to treat water in this manner, great care and watchful- 
ness should be exercised by the engineer in the selec- 
tion and use of a boiler compound. 

From 10 to 40 grains of mineral matter per galion are 
held in solution by the waters of the different rivers, 
streams and lakes; well and mine water contain more. 

Water contracts and becomes denser in cooling until 
it reaches a temperature of 39.1° F., its point of great- 
est density. Below this temperature it expands, and 
at 32° F. it becomes solid or f^-eezes, and in the act of 
freezing it expands considerabl}', as every engineer 
who has had to deal with frozen water pipes can testify. 

Water is 815 times heavier than atmospheric air. 
The weight of a cubic foot of water at 39. i" is approxi- 
mately 62.5 lbs., although authorities differ on this 
matter, some of them placing it at 62.379 lbs., and 
others at 62.425 lbs. per cubic foot. As its tempera- 
ture increases its weight per cubic foot decreases, until 
at 212° F. one cubic foot weighs 59.76 lbs. 

The table which follows is com.piled from various 
sources and gives the weight of a cubic foot of water 
at different temperatures. 

Table 3 



Temper- 


Weight per 


Temper- 


Weight per 


Temper- 


Weight per 


ature 


Cubic Foot 


ature 


Cubic Foot 


ature 


Cubic Foot 


32° F. 


62.42 lbs. 


132° F. 


61.52 lbs. 


230° F. 


59.37 IbSL 


42° 


62.42 


142° 


61.34 


240° 


59.10 


52° 


62.40 


152° 


61.14 


250° 


58.85 


62° 


62.36 


162° 


60.94 


260° 


58.52 


72° 


62.30 


172° 


60.73 


270° 


58.21 


82° 


62.21 


182° 


60.50 


300° 


57-26 


92° 


62.11 


IQ2° 


60.27 


330° 


56.24 


102° 


62.00 


202° 


60.02 


360° 


55.16 


112° 


61.86 


212° 


59.76 


390° 


54-03 


122° 


61.70 


220° 


59-64 


420° 


52.86 



FIREMAN'S DUTIES 33 

The boiling point of water varies according to the 
pressure to which it is subject. In the open air at sea 
level the boiling point is 212° F. When confined in a 
boiler under steam pressure the boiling point of water 
depends upon the pressure and temperature of the 
steam, as, for instance, at 100 lbs. gauge pressure the 
temperature of the steam is 338° F., to whfch tempera- 
ture the water must be raised before its molecules will 
separate and be converted into steam. In the absence 
of any pressure, as in a perfect vacuum, water boils at 
32° F. temperature. In a vacuum of 28 in., corre- 
sponding to an absolute pressure of .943 lbs., water 
will boil at 100°, and in a vacuum of 26 in., at which 
the absolute pressure is 2 lbs., the boiling point of 
water is 127° F. On the tops of high mountains in a 
rarefied atmosphere water will boil at a much lower 
temperature than at sea level; for instance, at an alti- 
tude of 15,000 ft. above sea level water boils at 184" F, 

Steam. Having discussed to some extent the phys- 
ical properties of water, it is now in order to devote 
some time to the study of the nature of steam, which 
is simply water in its gaseous form, made so by the 
application of heat. 

As has been stated in another portion of this book, 
matter consists of molecules or atoms inconceivably 
small in size, yet each having an individuality, and in 
the case of solids or liquids, each having a mutual 
cohesion or attraction for the other, and all being in 
a state of continual vibration more or less violent 
according to the temperature of the body. 

The law of gravitation, which holds the universe 
together, also exerts its wonderful influence on these 
atoms and causes them to hold together with more of 
less tenacity according to the nature of the substance. 



34 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

Thus it is much more difficult to chip off pieces of iron 
or granite than it is of wood. But in the case of water 
and other liquids the atoms, while they adhere to each 
other to a certain extent, still are not so hard to 
separate; in fact, they are to some extent repulsive to 
each other, and unless confined within certain bounds 
the atoms will gradually scatter and spread out, and 
finally either be evaporated or sink out of sight in the 
earth's surface. Heat applied to any substance tends 
to accelerate the vibrations of the molecules, and if 
enough heat is applied it will reduce the hardest sub- 
stances to a liquid or gaseous state. 

The process of the generation of steam from water 
is simply an increase of the natural vibrations of the 
molecules of the water, caused by the application of 
heat, until they lose all attraction for each other and 
become instead entirely repulsive, and unless confined 
will fly off into space. But, being confined, they con- 
tinually strike against the sides of the containing ves- 
sel, thus causing the pressure which steam or any other 
gas exerts when under confinement. 

Of course steam, like other gases, when under 
pressure is invisible, but the laws governing its action 
are well known. These laws, especially those relating 
to the expansion of steam, will be more fully discussed 
in the chapter on the Indicator. The temperature of 
steam in contact with the water from which it is 
generated, as for instance in the ordinary steam 
boiler, depends upon the pressure under which it is 
generated. Thus at atmospheric pressure its tempera- 
ture is 212° F. If the vessel is closed and the pressure 
increased the temperature of the steam and also that 
of the water rises. 

Saturated Steam. When steam is taken directly 



FIREMAN'S DUTIES 35 

from the boiler to the engine without being super- 
heated, it is termed saturated steam. This does not 
necessarily imply that it is wet and mixed with spray 
and moisture. 

Superlicated Steam. When steam is conducted into 
or through a vessel or coils of pipe separate from the 
boiler in which it was generated and is there heated to 
a higher temperature than that due to its pressure, it is 
said to be superheated. 

Dry Steam. When steam contains no moisture it is 
said to be dry. Dry steam may be either saturated or 
superheated. 

Wet Steam. When steam contains mist or spray 
intermingled, it is termed wet steam, although it may 
have the same temperature as dry saturated steam of 
the same pressure. 

During the further consideration of steam in this 
book, saturated steam will be mainly under discussion, 
for the reason that this is the normal condition of 
steam as used most generally in steam engines. 

Total Heat of Steam. The total heat in steam in 
eludes the heat required to raise the temperature of 
the water from 32° F. to the temperature of the steam 
plus the heat required to evaporate the water at that 
temperature. This latter heat becomes latent in the 
steam, and is therefore called the latent heat of steam. 

The work done by the heat acting within the mass of 
water and causing the molecules to rise to the surface 
is termed by scientists internal work, and the work 
done in compressing the steam already formed in the 
boiler or in pushing it against the superincumbent 
atmosphere, if the vessel be open, is termed external 
work. There are, therefore, in reality three elements 
to be taken into consideration in estimatinsf the total 



36 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

heat of steam, but as the heat expended in doing 
external work is done within the mass itself, it may, for 
practical purposes, be included in the general term 
latent heat of steam. 

Density of Stca?n. The expression density of steam 
means the actual weight in pounds or fractions of a 
pound avoirdupois of a given volume of steam, as one 
cubic foot. This is a very important point for young 
engineers especially to remember, so as not to get the 
two terms, pounds pressure and pounds weight, mixed, 
as some are prone to do. 

Vohane of Steam. By this term is meant the volume 
as expressed by the number of cubic feet in one pound 
weight of steam. 

Relative Volume of Steam. This expression has 
reference to the number of volumes of steam produced 
from one volume of water. Thus the steam produced 
by the evaporation of one cubic foot of water from 39° 
F. into steam at atmospheric pressure will occupy a 
space of 1646 cu. ft., but, as the steam is compressed 
and the pressure allowed to rise, the relative volume 
of the steam becomes smaller, as, for instance, at 100 
lbs. gauge pressure the steam produced from one cubic 
footof water will occupy but 237.6 cu. ft., and if the same 
steam was compressed to 1,000 lbs. absolute or 985.3 lbs. 
gauge pressure it would then occupy only 30 cu. ft. 

The condition of steam as regards its dryness may be 
approximately estimated by observing its appearance 
as it issues from a pet cock or other small opening 
into the atmosphere. Drj' or nearly dry steam con- 
taining about I per cent of moisture will be transparent 
close to the orifice through which it issues, and even 
if it is of a grayish white color it may be estimated to 
contain not over 2 per cent of moisture. 



FIREMAN'S DUTIES 



37 



Steam in its relation to the engine should be consid- 
ered in the character of a vehicle for transferring the 
energy, created by the heat, from the boiler to the 
engine. For this reason all steam drums, headers and 
pipes should be thoroughly insulated, in order to pre- 
vent, as much as possible, the loss of heat or energy 
by radiation. 

Table 4 gives the physical properties of steam, and 
is convenient for reference. 

Table 4 

Properties of Saturated Steam 



►. 


^ 




Total Heat 




1) 


B 





s 


^ 




above 


32" F. 


_^ 


6 


.5 u 


^i 


" 












3 
'0 
> 

> 






il 


rl 






29 74 


.089 


32. 


0. 


logi 7 


109 1. 7 


208,080 


3333-3 


.0003 


29.67 


.122 


40. 


8. 


1094. 1 


1086. 1 


154.330 


2472.2 


.0004 


29.56 


.176 


50 


18. 


1097-2 


1079.2 


107,630 


1724.1 


.0006 


29.40 


.254 


60. 


28.01 


1100.2 


1072.2 


76,370 


1223.4 


.0008 


29.19 


.359 


70. 


38.02 


1103.3 


1065.3 


54,660 


875.61 


• OOII 


28.90 


.502 


80. 


48.04 


1106.3 


1058.3 


39,690 


635.80 


.0016 


28.51 


.692 


90. 


58.06 


1109,4 


1051.3 


2q,290 


469. 20 


.0021 


28.00 


.943 


TOO. 


68.08 


1112.4 


1044.4 


21,830 


349.70 


.0028 


27.88 


I. 


102. 1 


70.09 


II13.1 


1043.0 


20,623 


334.23 


0030 


25.85 


2. 


126.3 


94.44 


1120.5 


1026.0 


10,730 


173.23 


.0058 


23.83 


3- 


141. 6 


109.9 


II25.I 


1015.3 


7,325 


118.00 


.0085 


21.78 


4. 


153.1 


121. 4 


I128.6 


1007.2 


5,588 


89. So 


.0111 


19.74 


5. 


162.3 


130.7 


1131.4 


1000. 7 


4.530 


72.50 


.0137 


17.70 


6. 


170. 1 


138.6 


1133.8 


995.2 


3 816 


61.10 


.0163 


^5.67 


7- 


176.9 


145-4 


1135.9 


990.5 


3.302 


53.00 


.0189 


13-63 


8. 


182.9 


151.5 


1137.7 


986.2 


2,912 


46.60 


.0214 


11.60 


9. 


188.3 


156.9 


II39-4 


982.4 


2,607 


41.82 


.0239 


9.56 


10. 


193.2 


161.9 


1140.9 


979.0 


2,361 


37.80 


.0264 


7.52 


II. 


197.8 


166.5 


1 142. 3 


975.8 


2,159 


34.61 


.0289 


5.49 


12. 


202.0 


170.7 


1143.5 


972.8 


1,990 


31.90 


.0314 


3.45 


13. 


205.9 


174.7 


1144.7 


970.0 


1,846 


29.60 


.0338 


1.41 


14. 


209.6 


178.4 


1145.9 


967.4 


1,721 


27.50 


•0363 


0.00 


14.7 


212.0 


180.9 


1146.C 


965.7 


1,646 


26.^6 


-0379 



38 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



Table 4 — Co?itinued 





^ 




Total 


Heat 






S 





3'-i 




fe 


Above 


32'' F. 


"S r. 


^ 


et in 
Stea 


l^ 


tn a* 






'±*^ 




i^ 


C 1) 




c '^ 


""si H 


> 


£'° 






^1 


r^ 


re ."ti 


tj. 


l=i 





•li 




1- 


1- 


C 


J i 


s^-j 


J3 = 


5 


CJ-^" 




cr-J 


^^ 






~ i) 




'^ 




-J ^ 




< 




a " 


^ 






'-' 


^ 


0.3 


15 


213-3 


iSi.g 


II46.9 


965.0 


1,614 


25-90 


.0387 


1.3 


16 


216.3 


185-3 


II47.9 


962.7 


1,519 


24.33 


.0411 


2.3 


17 


219.4 


1S8.4 


II48.9 


960.5 


1,434 


23.00 


.0435 


3.3 


18 


222.4 


191.4 


II49.8 


95S.3 


1,359 


21. 80 


.0459 


4-3 


19 


225.2 


194.3 


II50.6 


956.3 


1,292 


20.70 


.0483 


5.3 


20 


227.9 


197.0 


II5I-5 


954-4 


1,231 


19.72 


.0507 


6.3 


21 


230.5 


199.7 


II52.2 


952.6 


1,176 


18.84 


.0531 


7.3 


22 


233.0 


202.2 


II53-0 


950.S 


1,126 


18.03 


.0555 


8.3 


23 


235.4 


204.7 


II53-7 


949-1 


i.oSo 


17.30 


.0578 


9.3 


24 


237.8 


207.0 


1154.5 


947-4 


1,038 


16.62 


.0602 


10.3 


25 


240.0 


209.3 


1155-I 


945-8 


998 


16.00 


.0625 


11.3 


26 


242.2 


211. 5 


1155-8 


944.3 


962 


15.42 


.0649 


12.3 


27 


244-3 


213-7 


1156.4 


942. s 


929 


14.90 


.0672 


13.3 


28 


246.3 


215-7 


1157.1 


941.3 


898 


14.40 


.0696 


14.3 


29 


248.3 


217.8 


1157-7 


939-9 


869 


13.91 


.0719 


15.3 


30 


250.2 


219.7 


115S.3 


938.9 


841 


13.50 


.0742 


16.3 


31 


252.1 


221.6 


115S.8 


937.2 


816 


13.07 


.0765 


17.3 


32 


254.0 


225.5 


1159-4 


935.9 


792 


12.68 


.0788 


18.3 


33 


255.7 


225.3 


1 1 59. 9 


934-6 


769 


12.32 


.0812 


19-3 


34 


257.5 


227.1 


1160.5 


933.4 


74S 


12.00 


.0S35 


20.3 


35 


259.2 


22S.3 


1161.0 


932.2 


72S 


11.66 


.0858 


21.3 


36 


260.8 


230.5 


1161.5 


931.0 


709 


11.36 


.0880 


22.3 


37 


262.5 


232.1 


1 1 62.0 


929. S 


691 


11.07 


.0903 


23.3 


38 


264.0 


233-8 


1162.5 


928.7 


674 


10.80 


,0926 


24.3 


39 


265.6 


235.4 


1162.9 


927.6 


658 


10.53 


.0949 


25.3 


40 


267.1 


236.9 


1163.4 


926.5 


642 


10.28 


.0972 


26.3 


41 


268.6 


238.5 


1163.9 


925-4 


627 


10.05 


.0995 


27-3 


42 


270.1 


240.a 


1164.3 


924.4 


613 


9-83 


.1018 


28.3 


43 


271.5 


241.4 


1164.7 


923.3 


600 


9.61 


.1040 


29-3 


44 


272.9 


242.9 


1165.2 


922.3 


587 


9.41 


.1063 


30.3 


45 


274.3 


244-3 


1165.6 


921.3 


575 


9.21 


.1086 


31.3 


46 


275.7 


245-7 


1166.0 


920.4 


563 


9.02 


.1108 


32.3 


47 


277-0 


247.0 


1166.4 


919.4 


552 


8.84 


.1131 


33.3 


48 


278.3 


248.4 


1166.8 


918.5 


541 


8.67 


.1153 


34.3 


49 


279.6 


249.7 


1167.2 


917.5 


531 


8.50 


.1176 


35.3 


50 


280.9 


251.0 


1167.6 


916.6 


520 


8-34 


.1198 


36.3 


51 


282.1 


252.2 


1168.0 


915.7 


511 


8.19 


.1221 


37.3 


52 


283.3 


253.5 


1168.4 


914.9 


50. 


8.04 


.1243 



FIREMAN'S DUTIES 



39 



Table 4 — Coniiimed 










Total Heat 







E 





3"— ' 




fa 


above 


32" F. 


1 ^ 


E 

3 

> 






Oh- 




•- 


1-^ 

51 


<u a 
be 


^0. 


H& 


^^ = 


«_§ 




> 


s? 


« jj 


3 'Si 

rtJ2 


1-s 


Q 


s^i 


s-^i 


03 i-p' 
H-1 ^ 


_rt 


-i 


^5 


0^ 


< 










c2 


-^'o 

^ 


38.3 


53 


284.5 


254-7 


II68.7 


914.0 


492 


7.90 


1266 


39-3 


54 


285.7 


256.0 


1 169. 1 


913.1 


484 


7-76 


1288 


40.3 


55 


286.9 


257.2 


1 169. 4 


912.3 


476 


7.63 


I3II 


41.3 


56 


288.1 


258.3 


T169.8 


911-5 


468 


7.50 


1333 


42.3 


57 


289.1 


259.5 


1 1 70. 1 


910.6 


460 


7.38 


1355 


43.3 


58 


290.3 


260.7 


1170.5 


909.8 


453 


7.26 


1377 


44.3 


59 


291.4 


261.8 


1170.8 


909.0 


446 


7.14 


1400 


45.3 


60 


292.5 


262.9 


1171.2 


908.2 


439 


7.03 


1422 


46.3 


61 


293-6 


264.0 


1171.5 


907.5 


432 


6.92 


1444 


47.3 


62 


294.7 


265.1 


1171.8 


906.7 


425 


6.82 


1466 


48.3 


63 


295.7 


266.2 


1172.1 


905-9 


419 


6.72 


1488 


49.3 


64 


296.8 


267.2 


T172.4 


905.2 


413 


6.62 


I5II 


50.3 


65 


297.8 


268.3 


1172.8 


904-5 


407 


6.53 


1533 


51.3 


66 


298.8 


269.3 


II73-I 


903-7 


401 


6.43 


1555 


52.3 


67 


299.8 


270.4 


II73-4 


903-0 


395 


6.34 


1577 


53 3 


68 


300.8 


271.4 


II73-7 


902.3 


390 


6.25 


1599 


54.3 


69 


301.8 


272.4 


1174.0 


901.6 


384 


6.17 


I62I 


55.3 


70 


302.7 


273.4 


1174-3 


900.9 


379 


6.09 


1643 


56.3 


71 


303.7 


274.4 


1174-6 


900.2 


374 


6.01 


1665 


57.3 


72 


304.6 


275.3 


1174.8 


899-5 


369 


5.93 


1687 


58.3 


73 


305.6 


276.3 


1175-I 


898.9 


365 


5.85 


1709 


59-3 


74 


306.5 


277.2 


1175-4 


898.2 


360 


5.78 


I73I 


60.3 


75 


307.4 


278.2 


1175.7 


897-5 


356 


5.71 


1753 


61.3 


76 


308.3 


279-1 


1176.0 


896.9 


351 


5.63 


1775 


62.3 


77 


309.2 


280.0 


1176.2 


896.2 


347 


5.57 


1797 


63.3 


78 


3 10. 1 


280.9 


1176.5 


895-6 


343 


5.50 


I8I9 


64.3 


79 


310.9 


281.8 


1176.8 


895.0 


339 


5.43 


1840 


65.3 


80 


311. 8 


282.7 


1177.0 


894-3 


334 


5.37 


r862 


66.3 


81 


312.7 


283.6 


1177.3 


893-7 


331 


5.31 


.1884 


67.3 


82 


313-5 


284.5 


1177.6 


893.1 


327 


5.25 


1906 


68.3 


83 


314.4 


285.3 


1177.8 


892.5 


323 


5.18 


1928 


69.3 


84 


315.2 


286.2 


1178.1 


891.9 


320 


5.13 


1990 


70.3 


85 


316.0 


287.0 


1178.3 


891.3 


316 


5.07 


.1971 


71.3 


86 


316.8 


287.9 


1178.6 


890.7 


313 


5.02 


1993 


72.3 


87 


317.7 


288.7 


1178.8 


890.1 


309 


4.96 


.2015 


73.3 


88 


318.5 


289.5 


1179.1 


889.5 


306 


4.91 


2036 


74.3 


89 


319-3 


290.4 


1179-3 


888.9 


303 


4.86 


.2058 


75.3 


90 


320.0 


291.2 


1179.6 


888.4 


299 


4.81 


.2080 



40 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



Table 4 — Co?itinued 



" 


u 




Total Heat 




V 


s 


^ 




D d 

m>-i 




above 


32" F. 


ca en 


E 

3 


.si 


. 


1% 


If 

0) « 




.t^ 


0) -J-. 


9 




XI - 
9 S 

Urt 


3 en 




H| 








5 


IS 

3 • 


■0^ 


CCJ3 


tnJ3 




j= « 


^ ^ 


"o 


u-^ 




OhJ 


^-l 




*- ^ 


"^ T' 




Q^ 


^K-1 


^° 




*C 




c "-*-< 


c ^ 






l-l 


^ 


76.3 


91 


320.8 


292.0 


II79-S 


887.8 


296 


4.7-6 


.2102 


77.3 


92 


321.6 


292.8 


1180.0 


887.2 


293 


4.71 


.2123 


78.3 


93 


322.4 


293.6 


1180.3 


886.7 


290 


4.66 


.2145 


79-3 


94 


.323.1 


294.4 


1 1 80. 5 


886.1 


287 


4.62 


.2166 


80.3 


95 


323.9 


295.1 


1180.7 


885.6 


285 


4.57 


.2x88 


81.3 


96 


324.6 


295.9 


1181.0 


885.0 


282 


4.53 


.2210 


82.3 


97 


325.4 


296.7 


1181.2 


884.5 


279 


4.48 


.2231 


83.3 


98 


326.T 


297.4 


1181.4 


884.0 


276 


4.44 


.2253 


84.3 


99 


326.8 


298.2 


1181.6 


883.4 


274 


4.40 


.2274 


85.3 


100 


327.6 


298.9 


1181.8 


882.9 


271 


4-36 


.229J5 


86.3 


lOI 


328.3 


299.7 


1182.1 


882.4 


268 


4.32 


.2317 


87.3 


102 


329.0 


300.4 


1182.3 


881.9 


266 


4.28 


.2339 


88.3 


103 


329.7 


301. I 


1182.5 


881.4 


264 


4.24 


.2360 


89.3 


104 


330.4 


301.9 


1182.7 


880.8 


261 


4.20 


.2382 


90-3 


105 


33I.I 


302.6 


1182.9 


880.3 


259 


4.16 


.2403 


91.3 


106 


331.8 


303.3 


1183.1 


879.8 


257 


4.12 


.2425 


92.3 


107 


332.5 


304.0 


1183.4 


879.3 


254 


4-09 


.2446 


93.3 


108 


333.2 


304.7 


1183.6 


878.8 


252 


4.05 


.2467 


94.3 


109 


333.9 


305.4 


1183.8 


878.3 


250 


4.02 


.2489 


95.3 


IIO 


334.5 


306. I 


1 1 84.0 


877.9 


248 


3-98 


.2510 


96.3 


III 


335.2 


306.8 


1184.2 


877.4 


246 


3.95 


.2531 


97.3 


12 


335.9 


307.5 


1184.4 


876,9 


244 


3.92 


.2553 


98.3 


; 3 


336.5 


308.2 


1184.6 


876.4 


242 


3.88 


.2574 


99.3 


1.4 


337.2 


308.8 


1184.8 


875.9 


240 


3-85 


.2596 


100.3 


115 


337.8 


309.. 


1185.0 


875.5 


238 


3.82 


.2617 


101.3 


116 


338.5 


310.2 


1185.2 


875.0 


236 


3.79 


.2638 


102.3 


117 


339-1 


310.8 


1185.4 


874.5 


234 


3.76 


.2660 


103.3 


118 


339-7 


311. 5 


1185.6 


874.1 


232 


3.73 


.2681 


104.3 


119 


340.4 


312.1 


1185.8 


873.6 


230 


3.70 


.2703 


105.3 


120 


341.0 


312.8 


11S5.9 


873.2 


228 


3.67 


.2764 


106,3 


121 


341.6 


313.4 


1 186. 1 


872.7 


227 


3.64 


.2745 


107-3 


122 


342.2 


3 14. 1 


1186.3 


872.3 


225 


3.62 


.2766 


108.3 


123 


342.9 


314.7 


1186.5 


871.8 


223 


3.59 


.2788 


109.3 


124 


343-5 


315.3 


1186.7 


871.4 


221 


3.56 


.2809 


1 10. 3 


125 


344.1 


316.0 


1186.9 


870.9 


220 


3.53 


.2830 


111.3 


126 


344.7 


316.6 


1187.1 


870.5 


218 


3.51 


.2851 


112.3 


127 


345.3 


317.2 


1187.3 


870.0 


216 


3.48 


.2872 


113.3 


128 


345.9 


3T7.8 


1187.4 


869.6 


215 


3.46 


.2894 



FIREMAN'S DUTIES 



41 



Table 4 — Continued 





£ . 




Total Heat 




a 


S 


g 


£0 


ad 




Above 


32° F. 


^ 


s 


_c S 


^i 


w . 


1? 


S % 








3 
> 


S 






^ m 




XI . 

o2 


^ w 


<0 4) 


4j fc- 


<A •— 


4> .— 


ci-^ 


2f 




U rt 


bfi . 


-a 


Hg" 


^^ = 


^^? 


Fs 


> 


s? 


w ^ 




|3 


Q 






- s 


5 
% 
^ 


-3 


• 


II4-3 


129 


346.5 


318.4 


1187.6 


869.2 


213 


3-43 


.2915 


I15.3 


130 


347.1 


319-1 


1187.8 


868.7 


212 


3.41 


.2936 


116.3 


131 


347.6 


319-7 


1188.0 


868.3 


210 


3.38 


.2957 


117.3 


132 


348.2 


320.3 


J188.2 


867.9 


209 


3.36 


.2978 


118.3 


133 


348.8 


320.8 


11S8.3 


867.5 


207 


3.33 


.3000 


1 19- 3 


134 


349.4 


321.5 


I188.5 


867.0 


206 


3-31 


.3021 


120.3 


135 


350.0 


322.1 


1188.7 


866.6 


204 


3.29 


.3042 


121. 3 


136 


350.5 


322.6 


1188.9 


866.2 


203 


3.27 


.3063 


122.3 


137 


351. 1 


323.2 


I189.0 


865.8 


201 


3.24 


.3084 


123.3 


138 


351.8 


323.8 


1189.2 


865.4 


200 


3.22 


.3IOS 


124.3 


139 


352.2 


324-4 


1189.4 


865.0 


199 


3.20 


.3126 


125.3 


140 


352.8 


325.0 


1189.5 


864.6 


197 


3-18 


•3147 


126.3 


141 


353.3 


325.5 


1189.7 


864.2 


196 


3.16 


.3169 


127.3 


142 


353-9 


326.1 


1 1 89. 9 


863.8 


195 


3-14 


.3190 


128.3 


143 


354.4 


326.7 


1190.0 


863.4 


193 


3-II 


.3211 


129.3 


144 


355.0 


327.2 


1190.2 


863.0 


192 


3-09 


.3232 


130.3 


145 


355.5 


327.8 


1190.4 


862.6 


191 


3.07 


.3253 


131.3 


146 


356.0 


328.4 


1190.5 


862.2 


190 


3-05 


.3274 


133-3 


148 


357.1 


329.5 


1190.9 


861.4 


187 


3.02 


.3316 


135-3 


150 


358.2 


330. 6 


1191.2 


860.6 


185 


2.98 


.3358 


140.3 


155 


360.7 


333.2 


1192.0 


858.7 


179 


2.89 


.3463 


145.3 


160 


363.3 


335.9 


1192.7 


856.9 


174 


2.80 


.3567 


150.3 


165 


365.7 


338.4 


1193-5 


855-1 


169 


2.72 


.3671 


155.3 


170 


368.2 


340.9 


1 194- 2 


853.3 


164 


2.65 


.3775 


160.3 


175 


370.5 


343.4 


I 194.9 


851.6 


160 


2.58 


.3879 


165.3 


180 


372.8 


345-8 


1195-7 


849-9 


156 


2.51 


.3983 


170.3 


185 


375.1 


348.1 


1196.3 


848.2 


152 


2.45 


.4087 


175.3 


190 


377.3 


350.4 


1197.0 


846.6 


148 


2.39 


.4191 


180.3 


195 


379.5 


352.7 


1197.7 


845-0 


144 


2.33 


.4296 


185.3 


200 


381.6 


354-9 


1198.3 


843-4 


141 


2.27 


.4400 


190.3 


205 


383-7 


357.1 


1 199-0 


841.9 


138 


2.22 


.4503 


195.3 


210 


385.7 


359-2 


1199.6 


840.4 


135 


2.17 


.4605 


200.3 


215 


387.7 


361.3 


1200.2 


838.9 


132 


2.12 


.4707 


205.3 


220 


389-7 


362.2 


1200.8 


838.6 


129 


2.06 


.4852 


245.3 


260 


404.4 


377-4 


1205.3 


827.9 


no 


1.76 


.5686 


285.3 


300 


417-4 


390.9 


1209.2 


818.3 


96 


1-53 


.6515 


485.3 


500 


467.4 


443.5 


1224.5 


781.0 


59 


•94 


1.062 


685.3 


700 


504.1 


482.4 


1235.7 


753.3 


42 


.68 


1.470 


985.3 


1000 


546.8 


528.3 


1248.7 


720.3 


30 


.48 


2.082 



42 LOCOMOTIVE EXGIXEERING 

Questions 

1. What Is one of the most important of a fireman's 
duties? 

2. What should the fireman attend to first of all 
when getting his engine ready to start out from the 
roundhouse? 

3. What other details should be looked after at this 
time? 

4. What condition should his fire be in before leav- 
ing a terminal? 

5. What is the proper depth of fire to be carried? 

6. Should the fireman read and understand the train 
orders? 

7. How should the coal be supplied to the fire while 
running? 

8. What is the best rule for the fireman to observe? 

9. What precautions should a fireman practice re- 
specting admission of air to the fire-box? 

10. How may he prevent the grates from being 
burned out? 

11. Explain why the exhaust creates such a strong 
draft. 

12. When should the blower be used? 

13. Why is a larger grate area required for hard 
coal than for soft coal? 

14. Describe a water grate. 

15. How many square feet of grate surface is needed 
to burn one ton of soft coal per hour? 

16. For what purpose is a steam gauge connected to 
a boiler? 

17. Explain the construction and working of the 
Bourdon spring gauge. 

18. How should steam gauges be tested? 



FIREMAN'S DUTIES 43 

19. For what purpose is a safety valve used? 

20. How many pop valves should a locomotive boilei 
be -equipped with? 

21. Explain the working of a pop valve. 

22. What are the fireman's duties upon arrival at a 
terminal? 

23. What is combustion? 

24. What is one of the main factors in combustion? 

25. Of what is air composed? 

26. In what proportion are these two gases com- 
bined? 

2'j. What is the principal constituent of coal and 
other fuels? 

28. What other valuable constituent is contained in 
bituminous coal? 

29. What is the usual temperature of a boiler furnace 
when in active operation? 

30. About what should be the temperature of the 
escaping gases? 

31. What two factors are indispensable in the eco- 
nomical use of coal? 

32. What is heat? 

33. What is the heat unit? 

34. What is the mechanical equivalent of heat? 

35. How many heat units are there in one pound of 
carbon? 

36. How many heat units are there in one pound of 
hydrogen gas? 

37. What is specific heat? 

38. What is sensible heat? 

39. What is latent heat? 

40. Is the latent heat imparted to a body lost? 

41. What is meant by the total heat of evaporation? 

42. How much heat expressed in heat units is re- 



44 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

quired to evaporate one pound of water from a tem- 
perature of 32° into steam at atmospheric pressure? 

43. Name the two elements composing pure water. 

44. In what proportion are these two gases com- 
bined in the formation of water? 

45. Is perfectly pure water desirable for use in steam 
boilers? 

46. What causes scale to form in boilers? 

47. What proportion of mineral matter is usually 
found in water? 

48. What is steam? 

49. Of what does matter consist? 

50. How does the application of heat to any sub- 
stance affect its molecules? 

51. In what particular manner does heat affect the 
molecules of water? 

52. Is steam under pressure visible? 

53. What is saturated steam? 

54. What is dry steam? 

55. What is superheated steam? 

56. What is meant by the term total heat in steam? 

57. What is meant by the density of steam? 

58. What is meant by the volume of steam? 

59. What is tne weight of a cubic foot of water at 
39.1° temperature? 

60. What is the weight of a cubic foot of water at a 
temperature of 212°? 

61. What is the boiling point of water in the open 
air at sea level? 

62. At what temperature will water boil in a perfect 
vacuum? 

63. What is meant by the relative volume of steam? 



n 




^TT^ 







Fig. 6. Vertical Longitudinal Section of Locomotive Boiler. 




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1 



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— > 



CHAPTER II 

THE BOILER 

In order that the student may get a general idea of 
the construction of a locomotive boiler, a sectional 
elevation of one is shown in Fig. 6. 

The four vital organs of a locomotive boiler are: 
first, the fire-box A; second, the cylinder or barrel 
B-B; third, the flues or tubes C-C, and fourth, the 
smokestack D. Underneath the fire-box is suspended 
the ash pan E, next above the ash pan appears the 
mud ring F-F. This is a wrought iron bar bent to the 
proper form to extend around the bottom of the inside 
of the fire-box, the ends welded, and the ring thus 
formed is then drilled and riveted to the inside and 
outside sheets. 

The fire-box is a rectangular box constructed of steel 
plates G-G from ^ to y\ in. in thickness. The inner 
shell is surrounded by an outside shell H-H, also con- 
structed of steel plates, usually of about the same 
thickness as the inner plates. The outside shell is 
enough larger than the inside one to allow a space of 
2)^ to 4^ in. between the inner and outer plates. 
This space is called the water space and entirely sur- 
rounds the fire-box on the four sides, the water occupy- 
ing it being in free communication with the main body 
of water in the boiler It will thus be seen that the 
flat sides of the fire-box are subjected to the full 
pressure of the steam, and unless they be strengthened 
in some manner they will bulge apart. This danger is 
obviated by the use of stay bolts J-J, Fig. 6. -These are 
made of the best quality of wrought iron, generally 

45 



46 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

from 14, to lyV ii^- i^ diameter, and have a screw thread 
cut their whole length. They are screwed through 
both the outside and inside plates at intervals of from 
4 to 4^ in. apart center to center, thus securely bind- 
ing the plates together. The projecting ends of these 
stay bolts are also riveted down onto the plates, thus 
further increasing their holding power. 

Owing to the unequal expansion and contraction of 
the inner and outer plates, stay bolts are subjected to 
great strains and very frequently break, thereby caus- 
ing a large amount of trouble. They should be made 




Figure 7 

tubular, or at least have a small hole drilled into one 
end, as shown in Fig. 7, extending into the bolt a dis- 
tance greater than the thickness of the outside plate, 
so that if the bolt breaks which generally occurs next 
the outside plate, the water will escape through the 
fracture into the hole and thus indicate the defect and 
the danger. 

The Tate flexible stay bolt, which received the high- 
est award at the St. Louis exposition in J904, appears 
to offer at least a partial solution of the problem of 
staying fire-box sheets. Fig. 8 is a sectional view 
showing the design of this stay bolt. The ball-shaped 



THE BOILER 



47 



head of the bolt C is inclosed within a socket formed 
by a sleeve B that screws into the outer sheet, and a 
cap A that screws onto the sleeve. The other end of 
the bolt is screwed into and through the fire sheet a 




Figure 8 




sufficient distance to allow of riveting. It is apparent 
that the freedom of movement of the head of the bolt 
within its socket will allow the fire sheet to go and 
come, without subjecting the bolt to such severe 
strains and transverse stresses as would occur if the 
bolt were rigid. Fig. 9 is a full view of the bolt, 




Figure 9 



except that the thread has not yet been cut on the ena 
that screws into the fire sheet. The Tate flexible stay 
bolt is manufactured by the Flannery Bolt Company, 
Pittsburg, Pa. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




Figure 10 



It is also necessary to 
strengthen the flat top or 
crown sheet of the fire-box. 
There are three common 
methods by which this is 
done: first, by crown bars; 
second, by radial stays, and 
third, by the Belpaire 
system. 

In Fig. 6 the crown bar 
method is shown, K-K being 
the ends of the crown bars 
Fig. 10 is a transverse 
sectional view of the same 
boiler, and one of the crown 
bars, K-K, is shown ex- 
tending across the top of 
the fire-box above the crown 
sheet and supported at the 
ends by special castings 
that rest on the edges of the 
side sheets and on the flange 
of the crown sheet at L-L. 
These crown bars are double 
girders, and a space is al- 
lowed between them and the 
top of the crown sheet to 
allow the water to circulate 
freely. At intervals of 4 : 
5 in. crown bolts are placed 
having the head inside th? 
nut bearing on a plate on top of th: 
is also a thimble or ringr for each 



fire-box and the 

crown bar. There 

bolt to pass through, between the top of the crown 



THE BOILER 



49 



sheet and the bottom of the crown bars. These thim- 
bles maintain the proper distance between the crown 
sheet and crown bars. 

The second method of supporting the crown sheet 
is by the use of radial stays, which are long stay bolts 
screwed into the outer shell and into the crown sheet. 




Figure 11 



Fig. II shows a longitudinal section of a fire-box 
having the crown sheet secured by radial stays, and 
Fig. 12 is a transverse section and back view of the 
same. The principal defect in this construction is, 
that in order to resist successfully the strains induced 
by the pressure on the crown sheet, the stays should 
be placed at rii^ht anc^les to its surface, and in order 



50 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



to resist the pressure on the outer shell they should b^ 
radial to its cylindrical form, but as it is impossible to 
so locate them the strains are not equally divided and 
a certain distortion of both the stays and the sheets is 
the result. The only thing that can be done under 




Figure 12 



such conditions is to approximate as closely as pos- 
sible the correct position of the stays 

In the third or Belpaire system the outside shell of 
the boiler directly over the crown sheet is made flat to 
conform to the surface of the crown sheet. This per- 
mits of positive sta> 'ng, the stayi all having good 



THE BOILER 



51 



bearings in and on the sheets. This method is illus- 
trated by Figs. 13 and 14, which show longitudinal and 
transverse sections of this form of fire-box. The long 
stays S S S are seen to be connected at right angles to 
the flat plates, and the sides, which are also flat, are 
braced by the rods B B B extending across from side 
to side. A great advantage in this form of fire-box is 



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Figure 13 

that the crown sheet and the flat outside sheet directly 
over it have more or less flexibility and are free to 
bend or spring, according as the inside plates become 
heated and expand, or cool and contract. On the 
other hand, if the outside sheet is cylindrical in shape 
and has the crown sheet stayed to it by means of 
radial stays, it will be subjected to excessive distort 



52 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



tional strains caused by the more or less pushing 
upwards of the stays as the inner plates become heated. 
The crown sheets of locomotive boilers are as a rule 
made to slope downwards from the front end of the 
fire-box toward the back end, so as to be several 
inches lower behind than in front. This is done in 
order to lessen the danger of the back end of the 




Figure 14 

crown sheet becoming uncovered of water in running 
down a steep grade. There is not so much danger of 
the front end of the crown sheet becoming uncovered, 
either in going up or down a grade, for the reason that 
2t is nearer the center of the length of the boiler. 

The usual method of staying the heads of locomo- 
tive boilers is illustrated in Fig. 6. Diagonal stays or 



THE BOILER 



53 



braces S S S S are used, having one end riveted to the 
shell and the other end connected to that portion of 
the head that needs bracing. 

The flues serve to brace the flue sheet and all of that 
portion of the front head to which they are connected. 
Sometimes gusset stays are used for staying the heads. 
A gusset stay is a triangular piece of boiler plate P, 
Fig. 15, connected to the boiler head H and to the 
shell S by means of angle irons A A A A, which are 
riveted to the head. The plate P is connected to the 
angle irons by rivets. The tube plates or flue sheets 



_^ ^ ^ n n r^ 

A 





Figure 15 



are of necessity thicker than the shell, owing to the 
fact that they are considerably weakened by the holes 
drilled in them for the tubes. By reference to Fig. 6 
the arrangement of the tubes will be clearly under- 
stood, N being the fire-box end and M the smoke-oox 
end. Fig. 10 gives a view of the fire-box end of the 
tubes, which in this case are arranged in vertical rows 
In some cases the tubes are placed in horizontal rows. 
Opinions differ as to the best arrangement, but it is 
generally conceded that the plan of having them in 
vertical rows permits of a freer circulation of the 
>^vater around them. 



54 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



The diameter of locomotive tubes is usually two 
inches, as that size has been found by experience to 
be the most suitable for the distribution of the hot 
gases on their way from the fire-box to the smoke- 
stack. 

The tubes or flues are made water-tight in the sheets 
by being expanded in the holes drilled to receive 
them. The ends of the tubes are allowed to project 
through the sheets 3^ in. or more. Copper ferrules 
are generally slipped in over the outside of the tubes, 
and the tube is then expanded to fill the hole and a 
water-tight joint is thus secured. 
After the tube has been suffi- 
cientl)^ expanded, the projecting 
end is turned back onto the sheet 
and formed into a bead by the use 
of a caulking tool made espe- 
cially for the purpose. Fig. 16 is 
a sectional view of one end of a 
tube as it appears after being 
expanded into the sheet. 

There have been various types 

of tools designed and made for 

expanding tubes, but the two 

most generally used are the Prosser, Figs 17 and 18, 

and the Dudgeon, Fig 19. 

The Prosser tube expander is an expanding plug 
made up of eight or more sectors, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 
held together by an open steel ring or spring clasp C 
(see Fig. 18). The sector-shaped pieces have tfieir inner 
edges cut away in such shape as to leave a tapered 
hole H through the center of the plug. Into this hole 
the tapered mandrel E is inserted, and when the 
expander is inserted into the mouth of the tube and 




Figure 16 



THE BOILER 



55 



the mandrel driven in, the sectors will be slightly 
separated and the tendency will be to expand the 
tubes. The outside conformation of the sectors com- 
posing the plug is such that, [when the tube is ex- 
panded, it not onh^ completely fills the hole in the 




Figure 17 



tube sheet but is also expanded past the edge of the 
hole, both on the inside and outside of the sheet, thus 
securely binding the tube in the sheet and causing it to 
act as a brace. Referring to Fig. i6, S S is the tube 
sheet, R R shows the expanded ridge on the tube 
inside the sheet, and T T indicates the manner in 
which the end of the tube is expanded and beaded over 
onto the outer edge of the 
hole. 

The Dudgeon roller 
tube expander, shown in 
Fig. 19, consists of a hol- 
low plug having a sleeve 
or cap at one end that 
bears against the outside 
of the sheet, thus serving 
as a guide to the roller 
when in use. Three cavi- 
ties are cut longitudinally 

in the plug, and into each one of these cavities a roller 
is inserted which is free to revolve. These rollers can 




Jl 



n 



c — 



Figure IS 



56 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

also move a short distance outward from the center 
of the plug. In using this expander the plug is in- 
serted into the mouth of the tube as far as the cap 
will permit. A tapered mandrel is then driven into 
the central opening, and the rollers are forced out 
against the inner surface of the tube. The mandrel 
is then slowly turned around by means of a short steel 
rod inserted into one of the holes shown in the head 
(see Fig. 19). This causes the plug to revolve, as 
well as the rollers which bear hard against the tube, 
and expand it so as to fill the hole in the sheet. 

The Dudgeon expander is also a very efficient tool 
for repairing leaky tubes. Cast iron or steel ferrules 




Figure 19 

made slightly tapering are sometimes driven into the 
mouths of tubes after they have been expanded, but 
this method, although it may serve to prevent leakage, 
will at the same time decrease the capacity of the 
tubes to conduct the heat. 

As the term tensile strength (T. S.) will be used 
quite frequently in the remaining portion of this chap- 
ter, it is proper that its meaning be explained for the 
benefit of the beginner. 

The expression tensile strength per square inch as 
referring to a boiler sheet means that when the plate is 
rolled, and before it is accepted by the inspector, a 



THE BOILER 57 

small test piece having a sectional area of one square 
inch is cut from the plate and placed in a testing 
machine, where it is subjected to a pull or strain in 
the direction of its length, and this strain must equal 
the T. S. called for in the specifications. If the speci- 
fications call for a T. S. of 66,000 lbs. per square inch, 
the test piece must withstand that much of a strain 
before showing signs of breaking, otherwise the sheet 
will or should be rejected. 

When steel was first introduced as a material for 
boiler plate, it was customary to demand a high tensile 
strength, 70,000 to 74,000 lbs. per square inch, but 
experience and practice demonstrated in course of 
time that it was much safer to use a material of lower 
tensile strength. It was found that with steel boiler 
plate of high tenacity there was great liability of its 
cracking, and also of certain changes occurring in its 
physical properties, brought about by the variations in 
temperature to which it was exposed. Consequently 
present-day specifications for steel boiler plate call foi 
tensile strengths running from 55,000 to 66,000 lbs., 
usually 60,000 lbs. per square inch. Dr. Thurston 
gives what he calls "good specifications'' for boiler 
steel as follow: ''Sheets to be of uniform thickness, 
smooth finish, and sheared closely to size ordered. 
Tensile strength to be 60,000 lbs. per square inch for 
fire-box sheets and 55,000 lbs. per square inch for shell 
sheets. Working test: a piece from each sheet to be 
heated to a dark cherry red, plunged into water at 60° 
and bent double, cold, under the hammer. Such piece 
to show no flaw after bending." The U. S. Board of 
Supervising Inspectors of Steam Vessels prescribes, in 
Section 3 of General Rules and Regulations, the fol- 
lowing method for ascertaining- the tensile strength of 



58 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

steel plate for boilers: "There shall be taken from 
each sheet to be used in shell or other parts of boiler 
which are subject to tensile strain, a test piece pre- 
pared in form according to the following diagram: 

h CJ ty^ \ ^ 



^^ i ! 



Ahoi/:f'Z^ 



I ii-^.i/.!f*:...^/,rf> J 

Test Piece 

The straight part in center shall be 9 in. in length and 
I in. in width, marked with light prick punch marks 
at distances i in. apart, as shown, spaced so as to give 
8 in. in length. The sample must show, when tested, 
an elongation of at least 25 per cent in a length of 2 in. 
for thickness up to yi, in. inclusive; in a length of 4 
in., for over % in. to y\ in. inclusive; in a length of 6 
in., for all plates over y\ in. and under i^ in. in thick- 
ness. The samples shall also be capable of being bent 
to a curve of which the inner radius is not greater than 
\y2 times the thickness of the plates, after having been 
heated uniformly to a low cherry red and quenched in 
water of 82° F." 

Punched and Drilled Plates. Much has been written 
on this subject, and it is still open for discussion. If 
the material is a good, soft steel, punched sheets are 
apparently as strong and in some instances stronger 
than drilled; especially is this the case with regard to 
the shearing resistance of the rivets, which is greater 
with punched than with drilled holes. 

Concerning rivets and rivet iron and steel Dr. 
Thurston has this to sav in his "Manual of Steam 



THE BOILER 



59 



Boilers": "Rivet iron should have a tenacity in the 
bar approaching 60,000 lbs. per square inch, and should 
be as ductile as the very best boiler plate when cold. 
A good ^-in. iron rivet can be doubled up and ham- 
mered together cold without exhibiting a trace of 
fracture." The shearing resistance of iron rivets is 
about 85 per cent and that of steel rivets about 77 per 
cent of the tenacity of the original bar, as shown by 
experiments made by Greig and Eyth. The researches 
made by Wohler demonstrated that the shearing 
strength of iron was about four-fifths of the tensile 
strength. 

The tables that follow have been compiled from the 
highest authorities and show the results of a long and 
exhaustive series of tests and experiments made in 
order to ascertain the proportions of riveted joints 
that will give the highest efficiencies. 

The following table gives the diameters of rivets for 
various thicknesses of plates and is calculated accord- 
ing to a rule given by Unwin. 





Table 5 
Table of Diameters of Rivets* 


Thickness of 
Plate 


Diameter of Riret 


Thickness of Plate 


Diameter of Rivet 


V4 inch 


V2 inch 

"/16 '' 

3/4 " 


%6 inch 

^8 " 
3/4 " 


Vs inch 

IV16 " 

1V8 " 
IV4 " 



The efficiency of the joint is the percentage of the 
strength of the solid plate that is retained in the joint, 



* Machine design— W. C. Unwin. 



i%, LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

s-ind It depends upon the kind of joint and method oi 
construction. 

If the thickness of the plate Is more than ^ in., the 
joint should always be of the double butt type. 

The diameters of rivets, rivet holes, pitch and effi- 
ciency of joint, as given in the following table, which 
was published in the "Locomotive" several years ago, 
were adopted at the time by some of the best establish- 
ments in the United States.* 

Table 6 
Proportions and Efficiencies of Riveted Joints 



Thickness of plate 

Diameter of rivet 

Diameter of rivet-hole 

Pitch for single riveting 

Pitch for double riveting 

Efficiency — single-riveted joint 
Efficiency — double-riveted joint 



Inch 


Inch 


Inch 


Inch 


V4 


'U 


3/8 


V,6 


Vs 


^/l6 


''U 


^=^/l6 


^/l6 


'U 


''U 


Vh 


2 


2Vi« 


2V8 


2^/„ 


3 


3V8 


3V4 


3^/8 


.66 


.64 


.62 


.60 


.77 


.76 


.75 


.74 



Inch 



Vs 

2V4 
31/2 

.58 
.73 



Concerning the proportions of double-riveted butt 
joints. Professor Kent says: "Practically it may be said 
that we get a double-riveted butt joint of maximum 
strength by making the diameter of the rivet about 1.8 
times the thickness of the plate, and making the pitch 
4.1 times the diameter of the hole.'' 

Table 7, as given below, is condensed from the report 
of a test of double-riveted lap and butt joints. f In this 
test the tensile strength of the plates was 56,000 to 



= Thurston's Manual of Steam Boilers. 
Pi-oe. Inst. M. E.. Oct., 1888. 



THE BOILER 



6i 



58,000 lbs. per square inch, and the shearing resist- 
ance of the rivets (steel) was about 50,000 lbs. per 
square inch. 



Table 7 
Diameter and Pitch of Rivets — Double-riveted Joint 



Kind of Joint 


Thickness of 
Plate 


Diameter of 
Rivet 


Ratio of Pitch to 
Diameter 


Lap 
Butt 
Butt 

Butt 


f inch 
1 " 
1 " 
1 " 


0.8 inches 
0.7 " 
1.1 " 
1.3 " 


3.6 inches 
3.9 " 
4.0 " 
3.9 '* 



Lloyd's rules, condensed, are as follows: 
Lloyd's Rules — Thickness of Plate and Diameter of Rivets 



Thickness of 


Diameter of 


Thickness of 


Diameter of 


Plate 


Rivets 


Plate 


Rivets 


3/0 inch 


Vs inch 


'U " 


Vs inch 


Vie '' 


Vs " 


^Vl6 " 


Vs " 


V2 " 


^4 " 


Vs " 


1 


.%6 " 


'U " 


^'U " 


1 


Vs " 


V4 " 


1 " 


1 


"/16 " 


Vs " 







The following Table 8 is condensed from one. calcu- 
lated by Professor Kent,* in which he assumes the 
shearing strength of the rivets to be four-fifths of the 
tensile strength of the plate per square inch, and the 
excess strength of the perforated plate to be 10 per 
cent. 



♦Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket-Book, page 362. 



62 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

Table 8 







Pitch 


EfiBclency 


Thickness 
of Plate 


Diameter 
of Hole 








Single 


Double 


Single 


Double 






Riveting 


Riveting 


Riveting 


Riveting 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Vs 


Vs 


2.04 


3.20 


57.1 


72.7 


Vie 


1 


2.30 


3.61 


56.6 


72.3 


V2 


1 


2.14 


3.2s 


53.3 


70.0 


V2 


IVs 


2.57 


4.01 


56.2 


72.0 


^/l6 


1 


2.01 


3.03 


50.4 


67.0 


%6 


iVs 


2.41 


3.69 


53.3 


69.5 


^/l6 


1V4 


2.83 


4.42 


55.9 


71.5 


Vs 


1 


1.91 


2.82 


47.7 


64.6 


^8 


iVs 


2.28 


3.43 


50.7 


67.3 


Vs 


1V4 


2.67 


4.10 


53.3 


69.5 



Another table of joint efficiences as given by Dr. 
Thurston* is as follows, slightly condensed from the 
original calculation: 



Single riveting 
Plate thickness. Vie' 
Efficiency 55 

Double riveting 
Plate thickness, ^/s ' ' 
Efficiency 73 



Table 9 



78 

.55 



/16 
.53 



.72 .71 



V2" 
.52 



74 

.66 



/8 

.48 



V4" Vs' 
.47 .45 



.64 .63 



1" 
.43 



The author has been at considerable pains to com- 
pile Tables 10, 11 and 12, giving proportions and effi- 
ciencies of single lap, double lap and butt, and 
triple-riveted butt joints. The highest authorities 
have been consulted in the computation of these tables 
and great care exercised in the calculations. 



*Thur.ston's Manual of Steam Boilers, page 119. 



THE BOILER 



H 



Table io 
Proportions of Single-riveted Lap Joints 



Thickness of Plate 


Diameter of Rivet 


Pitch of Rivet 


Efficiency 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Per Cent 


Vl6 


^/l6 


1.13 


50.5 




% 


1.33 


53.3 


" 


"/16 


1.55 


55.7 


^/s 


^A 


1.60 


53.3 


<( 


Vs 


2.04 


57.1 


Vl6 


Vs 


1.87 


53.2 


<( 


1 


2.30 


56.6 


V2 


1 


2.14 


53.3 


4* 


iVs 


2.57 


56.2 


V16 


1 


2.01 


50.4 


U 


IVs 


2.41 


53.3 


it 


1V4 


2.83 


55.9 


% 


IVs 


2.28 


50.7 




1V4 


2.67 


53.3 



I 



It will be noticed that in single-riveted lap joints the 
highest efficiencies are attained when the diameter o{ 
the rivet hole is about 2/3 times the thickness of the 
plate, and the pitch of the rivet 2^ times the diameter 
of the hole. 

With the double-riveted joint it appears, according 
to Table 1 1, that in order to obtain the highest effi- 
ciency the joint should be designed so that the diam- 
eter of the rivet hole will be from if to 2 times the 
thickness of plate, and the pitch should be from 3)^ to 
3>^ times the diameter of the hole. Concerning the 
thickness of plates Dr. Thurston has this to say:* 
"Very thin plates cannot be well caulked, and thick 
])lates cannot be safely riveted. The limits are about 
j^ of an inch for the lower limit, and ^ of an inch for 
the higher limit." The riveting machine, hcvever, 
overcomes the difficulty with very thick plates. 

* Thurston's Manual of Steam Boilers, page 130. 



64 LOCOMOTWE ENGINEERING 

Table ii 
Proportions op Double-riveted Lap and Butt Joint? 



Tliickness of 
Plate 


Diameter of 
Rivet 


Pitch of Rivet 


Efficiency 


5/i6 inch 


V16 inch 


1.71 inches 


67.1 per cent 


Vl6 " 


-/8 " 


2.05 " 


69.5 *' 


% " 


3/4 " 


2.46 " 


69.5 " 


3/8 " 


Vs " 


3.20 " 


72.7 " 


Vl6 " 


3/4 " 


2.21 '• 


66.2 " 


Vl6 " 


Vs " 


2.86 " 


69.4 " 


Vl6 " 


1 


3.61 " 


72.3 " 


V2 " 


1 


3.28 " 


70.0 " 


V " 


iVs " 


4.01 " 


72.0 " 


«/l6 " 


1 


3.03 " 


67.0 " 


V16 " 


iVs "' 


3.69 " 


69.5 " 


%6 " 


1V4 " 


4.42 " 


71.5 '* 


^8 '" 


IVs '' 


3.43 " 


67.3 " 


^/8 ■' 


1V4 " 


4.10 " 


69.5 " 


3/4 " 


1 


2.50 " 


72.0 " 


Vs " 


IVs " 


3.94 '' 


74.2 " 


1 '' 


1V4 " 


4.10 '' 


76.1 " 



The triple-riveted butt joint with two welts, one 
inside and one outside, has two rows of rivets in 
double shear and one outer row in single shear on each 
side of the butt, the pitch of rivets in the outer rows 
being twice the pitch of the inner rows. One of the 
welts is wide enough for the three rows of rivets each 
side of the butt, while the other welt takes in only the 
two close pitch rows. 

When properly designed, this form of joint has a 
high efficiency, and is to be relied upon. Table 12 
gives proportions and efficiencies, and it will be noted 
that the highest degree of efficiency is shown when the 
diameter of rivet hole is from i}( to i}^ times the 
thickness of plate, and the pitch of the ri\ets is from 
3^ to 4 times the diameter of the hole. This, of 



THE BOILER 



6S 



course, refers to the pitch of the close rows of rivets, 
and not the two outer rows. 



Table 12 

Proportions of Triple-riveted Butt Joints with Inside and 
Outside Welt 



Thickness of 


Diameter of 


Pitch of 


Pitch of 


Efficiency 
Per Cent 


Plate 


Rivet 


Rivet 


Outer Rows 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Vs 


^Vl6 


3.25 


6.5 


84 


V16 


^Vl6 


3.25 


6.5 


85 


V2 


^Vl6 


3.25 


6.5 


83 


%6 


Vs 


3.50 


7.0 


84 


'Is 


1 


3.50 


7.0 


86 


^U 


1V16 


3.50 


7.0 


85 


Vs 


iVs 


3.75 


7.5 


86 


1 


1V4 


3.87 


7.7 


84 



A few examples of calculations for efficiency will be 
given, taking the three forms of riveted joints in most 
common use. The following notation will be used 
throughout: 

T.S. =Tensile strength of plate per square inch. 
T = Thickness of plate. 

C = Crushing resistance of plate and rivets". 
A = Sectional area of rivets. 
S = Shearing strength of rivets. 
D = Diameter of hole (also diamet^^r of rivets when 

driven). 
P = Pitch of rivets. 
In the calculations that follow T.S. will be assumed 
to be 60,000 lbs., S will be taken at 45,000 lbs., and 
the value of C may be assumed to be 90,000 to 95,000. 
F'ig. 20 shows a double-riveted lap joint. The style 
of riveting in this joiat. is what is known as chain 
riveting. 



66 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




Figure 20 



In case the rivets are staggered the same rules for 
calculating the efficienc}- will hold as with chain rivet- 
ing, for the reason that 
with either style of riv- 
eting the unit strip of 
plate has a width equal 
to the pitch or distance 
/, Fig. 20. 

The dimensions of 
the joint under consid- 
eration are as follows: 
P-3^ in.,T=V^^in., D 
= I in. (which is also di- 
ameter of driven rivet). 
The strength of the unit strip of solid plate is 
PxTxT.S. =85,312. 

The strength of net section of plate after drilling is 
P — D X T X T.S. = 59,062. 

The shearing 
resistanceof two 
rivets is 2A x S 
= ;o,686. 

The crushing 
resistance of 
rivets and plate 
isDx2xTxC 
= 78,750. 

It thus ap- 
pears that the 
weakest part of 
the joint is the 
the net strip or section of plate, the strength of which 
is 59,062 and the efficiency = 59,062 x 100 - 85,312 = 
69.2 per cent. 




Figure 21 



THE BOILER 67 

A double-riveted butt joint is illustrated by Fig. 21, 

and the dimensions are as follows: 

P, inner row of rivets = 2^ in. 

P', outer row of rivets = 51^ in, 

T of plate and butt straps = y\ in. 

D of hole and driven rivet = i in. 

Failure may occur in this joint in five distinct ways, 
which will be taken up in their order. 

1. Tearing of the plate at the outer row of rivets. 
The net strength at this point is P — DxTxT.S., 
which, expressed in plain figures, results as follows: 
5.5 - I X .4375 X 60,000 = 118,125. 

2. Shearing two rivets in double shear and one in 
single shear. Should this occur, the two rivets in the 
inner row would be sheared on both sides of the plate, 
thus being in double shear. Opposed to this strain 
there are four sections of rivets, two for each rivet. 
Then at the outer row of rivets in the unit strip there 
is the area of one rivet in single shear to be added. 
The total resistance, therefore, is 5A x S as follows: 
.•7854 X 5 x 45,000= 176,715. 

3. The plate may tea at the inner row of rivets and 
shear one rivet in the outer row. The resistance in this 
case would be P' - 2D x T x T.S. -f A x S as follows: 
5. 5 - 2 X .4375 X 60,000 + .7854 X 45,000 = 127,218. 

4. Failure may occur by crushing in front of three 
rivets. Opposed to this is 3D xTxC, or IX3X 

m .4375 X 95,000= 124,687. 

B 5. Failure may occur by crushing in front of two 
p rivets and shearing one. The resistance is represented 

by 2D X T X C + lA X S; expressed in figures, i x 2 x 

•4375 X 95,000 + .7854 X 45,000 = 118,468. 
The strength of a solid strip of plate 5^ in. wide 

before drilling is P' x T x T.S. , or 5.5 x .4375 ^ 60, 000 = 



68 



LOCOMOTIVE EXGIXEERING 



144,375, ^^^ ^^^ efficiency of the joint is 118,125 x 
100 - 144,375 = S^- ^ P^^ ^^^^• 
A triple-riveted butt joint is shown in Fig. 22, the 

dimensions of 



I 



Jj 


r"^^ 


> -^--^ 


'# 9 # # # # Ic! 

\ ii ^ ii ^ m m)] 
(»^® ® ® ® ® |d 


/^i i^ m } 


^T 




J 



which are 
follows: 

T = y\ in. 

D = ;-| in. 



as 



A 
P = 
P' = 



.69 in. 
3^ in. 



in. 



Failure may 
occur in this 
joint in either 
one of fiv^e ways. 
Figure 22 I. By tearing 

the plate at the 
outer row of rivets, \Yhere the pitch is 6^ in. The 
net strength of the unit strip at this point is P' - D x 
T X T.S., found as follows: 6.75 — .9375 x .4375 x 
60,000 = 152,578. 

2. By shearing four rivets in double shear and one 
in single shear. In this instance, of the four rivets in 
double shear, each one presents two sections, and the 
one in single shear presents one, thus making a total of 
nine sections of rivets to be sheared, and the strength 
is qA x S, or .69 x 9 X 45,000 = 279,450. 

3. Rupture of the plate at the middle row of rivets 
and shearing one rivet. Opposed to this strain the 
strength is P' - 2D x T x T.S. + lA x S, equivalent to 
G.75 - (.9375 X 2) X .4375 X 60,000 + .69 X 90,000 = 
190.068. 

4. Crushing in front of four rivets and shearing one 
rivet. The resistance in this instance is 4D x T x C4- 



THE BOILER 



69 



lA X S, or .9375 X 4 X .4375 ^ 90,000 +. 69 X 45,000 = 
178,706. 

5. Failure ma); be caused by crushing in front of five 
rivets, four of which pass through both the inside and 
outside butt straps, while the fifth rivet passes through 
the inside strap only, and the resistance is 5D x T x C, 
equivalent to .9375 x 5 x 90,000 = 184,570. 




Figure 23 



The strength of the unit strip of plate before drilling 
is P' X T x T.S., or 6.75 x .4375 X 60,000 = 177, 187, ^^'^ 
the efficiency is 152,578 x loo -^ 177, 187 - 86 per cent. 

With the constantly increasing demand for higher 
steam pressures, the necessity for higher efficiencies in 
the riveted joints of boilers becomes more apparent, 
and of late years quadruple and even quintuple-riveted 
butt joints have in many instances come into use. Tht 
quadruple butt joint when properly designed shows a 



70 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

high efficiency, in some cases as high as 94.6 per cent. 
Fig. 23 illustrates a joint of this kind, and the dimen- 
sions are as follows: 

T = >^ in. 
D = if in. 
A = .69 in. 
P, inner rows = 3^ in. 
P', 1st outer row = 7>^ in. 
F'\ 2d outer row = 15 in. 
The two inner rows of rivets extend through the 
main plate and both the inside and outside cover plates 
or butt straps. 

The two outer rows reach through the main plate 
and inside cover plate only, the first outer row having 
twace the pitch of the inner rows, and the second outer 
row has twice the pitch of the first. 

Taking a strip or section of plate 15 in. wide (pitch 
of outer row), there are four ways in which this joint 
may fail. 

1. By tearing of the plate at the outer row of rivets. 
The resistance is P'' — D x T x T.S., or 15 - .9375 x .5 x 
60,000 = 421,875. 

2. By shearing eight rivets in double shear and three 
in single shear. The strength in resistance is 19A x S, 
or .69 X 19 X 45,000 = 589,950. 

3. By tearing at inner rows of rivets and shearing 
three rivets. The resistance is P'' — 4D x T x T.S. + 
3A X S, or 15 -(.9375 X 4) X .5 X 60,000 + .69X3X 
45,000 = 430,650. 

4. By tearing at the first outer row of rivets, where 
the pitch is y}^ in., and shearing one rivet. The 
resistance is P'' - 2D x T x T.S. -f A x S, or 15 - (.9375 x 
2) X .5 X 60,000+ .69 X 45,000 = 424,800. 

It appears that the weakest part of the joint is at the 



THE BOILEE ^ 7- 

outer row of rivets, where the net strength is 421,875. 
The strength of the solid strip of plate 15 in. wide 
before drilling is P" x T x T.S., or 15 x .5 x 60,000 = 
450,000, and the efficiency is 421,875x100^450,000 = 
93.7 per cent. 

Staying Flat Surfaces. The proper staying or brac- 
ing of all flat surfaces in steam boilers is a highly 
important problem, and while there are various 
methods of bracing resorted to, still, as Dr. Peabody 
says, "the staying of a flat surface consists essentially 
in holding it against pressure at a series of isolated 
points which are arranged in regular or symmetrical 
pattern." The cylindrical shell of a boiler does not 
need bracing, for the very simple reason that the 
internal pressure tends to keep it cylindrical. On the 
contrary, the internal pressure has a constant tendency 
to bulge out the flat surface. Rule 2, Section 6, of the 
rules of the U. S. Supervising Inspectors provides as 
follows: "No braces or stays hereafter to be employed 
in the construction of boilers shall be allowed a greater 
strain than 6,000 lbs per square inch of section." 

The weakest portion of the crow foot brace when in 
position is at the foot end, where it is connected to 
the head by two rivets. With a correctly designed 
brace the pull on these rivets is direct and the tensile 
strength of the ma- \ a. 

terial needs to be /«^^ j r"^ 

considered only, but ^ 0'W'^'~'' ' -/^^ 

if the form of the N. I ,^^^^^^^^^^dsf 

brace is such as to y ^^ / 

bring the rivet holes 

above or below the 

center line of the brace, or if the rivets are pitched too 

far from the body of the brace, there will be a certain 



Figure 24 



72 



LOCOMOTIVE EXGIXEERIXG 




Figure 25 



.everage exerted upon the rivets in addition to the 
direct pull. Fig. 24 shows a brace of incorrect design 

and Figs. 25 and 26 
show braces designed 
along correct lines. 

The problem of prop- 
erly staying the flat 
crown sheet of a hori- 
zontal fire-box boiler, especialh' a locomotive boiler, 
is a very difficult one and has taxed the inventive 
genius of some of the most eminent engineers. 

For simplicit}' of construction and great strength the 
cylindrical form of fire-box known as the Morison 
corrugated furnace has proved to be very successful. 
This form of fire-box was in 1899 applied to a locomo- 
tive by 'Mr. Cornelius \'anderbilt, at the time assistant 
superintendent of motive power of the New York Cen- 
tral and Hudson River R. R. This furnace was rolled 
of f4-in. steel, is 59 in. internal diameter 
and II ft. 214^ in. in length. It was 
tested under an external pressure of 500 
lbs. per square inch before being placed 
in the boiler. It is carried at the front 
end b\' a row of radial sling sta}'s from 
the outside plate, and supported at the 
rear by the back head. Figs. 2^ and 28 
show respectively a sectional view and 
an end elevation of this boiler. It will 
be seen at once that the question of stays 
for a fire-box of this type becomes 
ver}' simple. 

Calculating the Stren^li of Stayed Surfaces. In calcu- 
lations for ascertaining the strength of stayed surfaces, 
or for finding the number of sta\'s required for any 




THE BOILER 



73 



TTW"^^. 




^4 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

given flat surface in a boiler, the working pressure 
being known, it must be remembered that each stay is 
subjected to the pressure on an area bounded by lines 
drawn midway between it and its neighbors. There- 
fore the area in square inches, of the surface to be 
supported by each stay, equals the square of the pitch 




Vertical Secfion A-B. 




End Elevation, 
SftovringAnachnient of bong. Stays. 



H— »«'— I Half End Etevcrtion 
Half Secfion C-D. i of 5nwke-Bo». 



Figure 28 



or distance in inches between centers of the points 
of connection of the stays to the flat plate. Thus, 
suppose the stays in a certain boiler are spaced 8 in. 
apart, the area sustained by each stay = 8 x 8 = 64 sq. 
in., or assume the stay bolts in a locomotive fire-box 
to be pitched 4}4 in. each way, the area supported 
by each stay bolt = 4}^ x 4>^= 20^ sq. in. 

The minimum factor of safety for stays, stay bolts 



THE BOILER 75 

and braces is 8, and this factor should enter into all 
computations of the strength of stayed surfaces. 

The pitch for stays depends upon the thickness of 
the plate to be supported, and the maximum pressure 
to be carried. 

In computing the total area of the stayed surface it 
is safe to assume that the flange of the plate, where it 
is riveted to the shell, sufficiently strengthens the 
plate for a distance of 2 in. from the shell, also that 
the tubes act as stays for a space of 2 in. above the top 
row. Therefore the area of that portion of the flat 
head or plate bounded by an imaginary line drawn at 
a distance of 2 in. from the shell and the same dis- 
tance from the last row of tubes is the area to be 
stayed. This surface maybe in the form of a segment 
of a circle, as with a cylindrical boiler, or it may be 
rectangular in shape, as in the case of a locomotive or 
other fire-box boiler. Other forms of stayed surfaces 
are often encountered, but in general the rules ap- 
plicable to segments or rectangular figures will suffice 
for ascertaining the areas. 

By the use of Table 13 and the rule that follows, the 
area of the segmental portion of any boiler head may 
be ascertained. 

Rule. Divide the height of the segment by the 
diameter of the circle. Then find the decimal oppO'- 
site this ratio in the column headed "Area." Multiply 
this area by the square of the diameter. The result is 
the required area. 

Example. Diameter of circle = 72 in. Height of 
segment = 25 in. 25 -;- 72 = .347, which will be found in 
the column headed "Ratio," and the area opposite this 
.24212. Then .24212 x 72 x 72 = 1,255 ^q. in., area of 
segment. 



70 



LOCOMOTIVE EXGIXEERING 



Table 13 

Areas of Segments of a Circle 



Ratio 


Area 


Pvatio 


Area 


Ratio 


Area 


Ratio 


Area 


.2 


111S2 


.243 


14751 


.286 : 


18542 


.329 


. 22509 


.201 


11262 


.244 


14837 


.287 


18633 


.33 


. 22603 


.202 


11343 


.245 


14923 


.288 


18723 


.331 


.22697 


.203 


11423 


.246 


15009 


.289 


18814 


.332 


.22792 


.204 


11504 


.247 


15095 


.29 


18905 


.333 


.22886 


.205 


11584 


.248 


15182 


.291 


18996 


.334 


.22980 


.206 


11665 


.249 


15268 


.292 


19086 


.335 


. 23074 


.207 


11746 


.25 


15355 


.293 


19177 


.336 


.23169 


.208 


11827 


.251 


15441 


.294 


19268 


.337 


.23263 


.209 


11908 


.252 


15528 


.295 


19360 


.338 


.23358 


.21 


11990 


.253 


15615 


.296 


19451 


.339 


.23453 


.211 


12071 


.254 


15702 


.297 


19542 


.34 


. 23547 


.212 


12153 


.255 


15789 


.298 


19634 


.341 


. 23642 


.213 


12235 


.256 


15876 


.299 


19725 


.342 


. 23737 


.214 


12317 


.257 


15964 


.3 


19S17 


.343 


.23832 


.215 


12399 


.258 


16051 


.301 1 


19908 


.344 


. 23927 


.216 


12481 


.259 


16139 


.302 ; 


20000 


.345 


. 24022 


.217 


12563 


.26 


16226 


.303 i 


20092 


.346 


.24117 


.218 


12646 


.261 


16314 


.304 


20184 


.347 


.24212 


.219 


12729 


.262 


16402 


.305 


20276 


.348 


.24307 


.22 


12811 


.263 


16490 


.306 


20368 


.349 


.24403 


.221 


12894 


.264 


16578 


.307 


20460 


.35 


. 24498 


.222 


12977 


.265 


16666 


.308 


20553 


.351 


.24593 


.223 


13060 


.266 


16755 


.309 


20645 


.352 


.24689 


.224 


13144 


.267 


16843 


.31 


20738 


.353 


. 24784 


.225 


13227 


.268 


16932 


.311 


20830 


.354 


. 24880 


.226 


13311 


.269 


17020 


.312 


20923 


.355 


. 24976 


.227 


13395 


.27 


17109 


.313 


21015 


.356 


.25071 


.228 


13478 


.271 


17198 


.314 


21108 


.357 


.25167 


.229 


13562 


.272 


172S7 


.315 


21201 


.358 


.25263 


.23 


13646 


.273 


17376 


.316 


21294 


.359 


.25359 


•:23l 


13731 


.274 


17465 


.317 


21387 


.36 


.25455 


.232 


13815 


.275 


17554 


.318 


21480 


.361 


.25551 


.233 


13900 


.276 


17644 


.319 


21573 


.362 


. 25647 


.234 


13984 


.277 


17733 


.32 


21667 


.363 


. 25743 


.235 


14069 


.278 


17823 


.321 


21760 


.364 


.25839 


.236 


14154 


.279 


17912 


.322 


21853 


.365 


.25936 


.237 


14239 


.280 


1S002 


.323 


21947 


.366 


.26032 


.238 


14324 


.281 


18092 


.324 


22040 


.367 


.26128 


.239 


14409 


.282 


18182 


.325 


22134 


.368 


. 26225 


.24 


14494 


.283 


18272 


.326 


22228 


.369 


.26321 


.241 


14580 


.284 


18362 


.327 


22322 


.37 


.26418 


.242 


14666 


.285 


18452 


.328 


22415 


.371 


. 26514 



THE BOILER 

Table 13 — Continued 



77 



Ratio 


Area 


Ratio 


Area 


Ratio 


Area ] 


^atio 


Area 


.372 


.26611 


.405 


.29827 


.438 


.33086 


471 


.36373 


.373 


. 26708 


.406 


. 29926 


.439 


.33185 


472 


.36471 


.374 


. 26805 


.407 


.30024 


.44 


.33284 


473 


.36571 


.375 


.26901 


.408 


.30122 


.441 


.33384 


474 


.36671 


.376 


. 26998 


.409 


.30220 


.442 


.33483 


475 


.36771 


.377 


.27095 


.41 


.30319 


.443 


.33582 


476 


. 26871 


.378 


.27192 


.411 


.30417 


.444 


.33682 


477 


.36971 


.379 


.27289 


.412 


.30516 


.445 


.33781 


478 


.37071 


.38 


. 27386 


.413 


.30614 


.446 


.33880 


479 


.37171 


.381 


.27483 


.414 


.30712 


.447 


.33980 


48 


.37270 


.382 


.27580 


.415 


.30811 


.448 


.34079 


481 


.37370 


.383 


.27678 


.416 


.30910 


.449 


.34179 


482 


.37470 


.384 


.27775 


.417 


.31008 


.45 


.34278 


483 


.37570 


.385 


. 27872 


.418 


.31107 


.451 


.34378 


484 


.37670 


.386 


. 27969 


.419 


.31205 


.452 


.34477 


485 


.37770 


.387 


.28067 


.42 


.31304 


.453 


.34577 


486 


.37870 


.388 


.28164 


.421 


.31403 


.454 


.34676 


487 


.37970 


.389 


. 28262 


.422 


.31502 


.455 


.34776 


488 


.38070 


.39 


.28359 


.423 


.31600 


.456 


.34876 


489 


.38170 


.391 


.28457 


.424 


.31699 


.457 


.34975 


49 


.38270 


.392 


.28554 


.425 


.31798 


.458 


.35075 


491 


.38370 


.393 


.28652 


.426 


.31897 


.459 


.35175 


492 


.38470 


.394 


. 28750 


.427 


.31996 


.46 


.35274 


493 


.38570 


.395 


.28848 


.428 


.32095 


.461 


. 35374 


494 


.38670 


.396 


. 28945 


.429 


.32194 


.462 


. 35474 


495 


.38770 


.397 


.29043 


.43 


.32293 


.463 


.35573 


496 


.38870 


.398 


.29141 


.431 


.32392 


.464 


. 35673 


497 


. 38970 


.399 


.29239 


.432 


.32941 


.465 


.35773 


498 


.39070 


.4 


.29337 


.433 


.32590 


.466 


.35873 


499 


.39170 


.401 


. 29435 


.434 


.32689 


.467 


.35972 


5 


.39270 


.402 


.29533 


.435 


.32788 


.468 


.36072 






.403 


.29631 


.436 


.32887 


.469 


.36172 






.404 


.29729 


.437 


.32987 


.47 


.36272 







Strength of Unstayed Surfaces. A simple rule for 
finding the bursting pressure of unstayed flat surfaces 
is that of Mr. Nichols, published in the Locomotive, 
February, 1890, and quoted by Professor Kent in his 
pocket-book. The rule is as follows: "Multiply the 
thickness of the plate in inches by ten times the tensile 



7S LOCOMOTIVE EXGIXEERING 

strength of the material used, and divide the product 
by the area of the head in square inches/' Thus: 
Diameter of head = 66 in. 
Thickness of head = s/s in. 
Tensile strength = 55,000 lbs. 
Area of head -= 3,421 sq. in. 

Ys X 55,000 X 10-3,421 = 100, which is the number 
of pounds pressure per square inch under which the 
unstayed head would bulge. 

If we use a factor of safety of 8, the safe working 
pressure would be 100-^8= 12.5 lbs. per square inch, 
but as the strength of the unstayed head is at best an 
uncertain quantity it has not been considered in the 
foregoing calculations for bracing, except as regards 
that portion of it that is strengthened by the flange. 

In all calculations for the strength of stayed surfaces, 
and especially where diagonal crow foot stays are 
used, the strength of the rivets connecting the stay to 
the flat plate must be carefully considered. A large 
factor of safety, never less than 8, should be used, and 
the cross section of that portion of the foot of the stay 
through which the rivet holes are drilled should be 
large enough, after deducting the diameter of the hole, 
to equal the sectional area of the body of the stay. 

Dished Heads. In boiler work where it is possible to 
use dished, or "bumped up" heads as they are some- 
times called, this type of head is rapidly coming into 
use. Dished heads may be used in the construction ot 
steam drums, also in many cases for dome-covers, 
thus obviating the necessity of bracing. 

As there has been a constantly growing demand for 
an increase in the power of locomotives, and as the 
boiler is the source of power, builders have been con- 
strained to change the design of locomotive boilers in 



THE BOILER 



79 



such manner as would 
bring about an en- 
largement of both the 
heating surface and 
the grate area. Con- 
sequently the old 
wagon top type oi 
boiler, with the fire- 
box down between 
the drivers and close 
to the track, has been 
largely superseded by 
the modern straight- 
top boiler having a 
wide fire-box, which 
as applied to freight 
engines with low 
wheels is usually 
above the rear driv- 
ers, but as applied to 
passenger engines 
with high wheels is 
usually behind the 
rear drivers and sup- 
ported by trailing 
wheels, as in "Atlan- 
tic 4-4-2," "Prairie 2- 
6-2'' and the "Pacific 
4-6-2" types. The 
introduction of the 
wide fire-box and 
consequent increase 
of great area has 
made it possible to 




8o 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




Figure 30 



burn cheaper grades of coal than was possible with the 
older type of boiler. It may be used (with some 
modifications) for both soft and hard coal. 

Fig. 29 shows a sectional eleva- 
tion of a modern locomotive 
boiler, and Fig. 30 an end view 
of one-half of the flue sheet and 
one-half of the back head. 

The staying of the heads and 
crown sheet is clearly illustrated. 
The general dimensions of the 
fire-box at the present time varies 
from 8 ft. to 10 ft. 4 in. in length, 
with a width of from 40 to 42 in., 
and a depth of 6 to 7 ft. in front, 
and 5 ft. 6 in. to 6 ft. 6 in. at the back, the size de- 
pending upon the type of engine and the kind of work 
it was designed to perform. 

The diameter of the barrel or cylindrical portion of 
locomotive boilers built for train service varies all the 
way from 60 to 78 in., and some recent splendid exam- 
ples of the locomotiv^e builders* art have boilers 83 in, 
in diameter. 

Questions 

64. What are the four vital organs of a locomotive 
boiler? 

65. Describe the mud ring. 

. 66. Describe in general terms the fire-box. 
^'j. How are the sides of the fire-box stayed? 

68. Describe a stay bolt. 

69. How far apart, center to center, are stay bolts 
usually spaced? 

70. What causes stay bolts to break? , 



THE BOILER 8i 

71. Why are stay bolts made hollow? 

72. Describe the flexible stay bolt. 

73. What advantage has a flexible stay bolt over a 
rigid one? 

74. Is it necessary to strengthen the crown sheet by 
stays? 

75. Why does the crown sheet need to be supported? 

76. Name the three methods usually employed for 
staying the crown sheet. 

'j'j. Describe crown bars, and how applied. 

78. Why is there a space preserved between the 
crown bars and top of crown sheet? 

79. How are the crown bolts attached? 

80. Why are thimbles placed between the cro-vn bars 
and top of crown sheet? 

81. Describe the radial system of staying the crown 
sheet. 

%2. What is the principal defect in this system? 

83. Describe the Belpaire system. 

84. 'What great advantage has this form of fire-box 
over others? 

85. Why are crown sheets usually made to slope 
downwards from the front to the back end? 

86. How are the heads of the boiler usually stayed? 

87. What are diagonal crow foot stays ? 

88. How is the flue sheet braced? 

89. What is a gusset stay, and how is it connected 
to the head and shell? 

90. Why should the flue sheet be thicker than the 
shell? 

91. What advantage is there in setting the tubes in 
vertical rows? 

92. What is the usual diameter of locomotive tubes? 

93. How are the tubes made water-tight in the sheet? 



82 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

94. Describe the Prosser tube expander and method 
of using it. 

95. Describe the Dudgeon roller expander. 

96. How is it used? 

97. What is meant by the expression tensile strength 
of a boiler sheet? 

98. What is the usual tensile strength of steel boiler 
plate? 

99. What should be the tensile strength of the rods 
from which rivets are made ? 

100. What is the shearing resistance of iron rivets? 
loi. What is the shearing resistance of steel rivets? 

102. What is meant by the efficiency of a riveted 
joint? 

103. W^hat type of joint should be used for plates J^ 
in. thick or more? 

104. Give the diameter of rivet pitch, and efficiency 
of a double-riveted joint. 

105. What is the usual efficiency of single-riveted 
joints? 

106. How should double-riveted joints be designed 
in order to obtain the highest efficiency? 

107. Describe a triple-riveted butt joint. 

108. How should a triple-riveted butt joint be 
designed in order to obtain the highest efficiency? 

109. What is meant by the expression, the unit strip 
or net section of plate, as used in calculating the effi- 
ciency of a riveted joint ? 

no. What is the usual efficiency of the triple-riveted 
butt joint? 

111. What efficiency per cent does the quadruple- 
riveted butt joint show when properly designed? 

112. Why is it that the cylindrical portion of a boiler 
does not require to be stayed? 



THE BOILER Sj 

113. What effect does the pressure inside a boiler 
have upon flat surfaces, such as the heads, crown 
sheet, etc.? 

114. Where is the weakest portion of a crow foot 
brace? 

115. How is the area in square inches to be sup- 
ported by each stay ascertained? 

116. What is the minimum factor for stays and stay 
bolts? 

117. What two factors govern the pitch for stays? 

118. What portions of the heads do not need to he 
braced? 

119. Is it possible to weld boiler seams? 

120. Describe in general terms the modern locomo- 
tive boiler. 

121. What are the general dimensions of the fire- 
box? 



CHAPTER III 

THROTTLE AND DRY PIPE 

Having studied at some length the construction of 
the boiler and the generation of steam, it is now in 
order to examine into the method by which the steam 
is conveyed to the cylinders of the engine, where it, 
or rather the heat that it contains, performs its work. 
The main factors in the transmission of the steam from 
the boiler to, the interior of the cylinders, and from 
there to the open air, are the throttle valve and pipe, 
the dry pipe, the steam pipes and passages, the valves 
and ports, the exhaust passages and ports, and the 
exhaust nozzles. These will each be described in 
regular order, with the exception of the valves and 
ports, which will be fully described in the chapters on 
valves and valve setting. 

The steam dome O, Fig. 6, is a cylindrical chamber 
made of boiler plate and riveted to the top of the 
boiler, usually directly over the fire-box. The func- 
tion of the dome is to serve as a steam chamber that 
is elevated as high as possible above the surface of the 
water in the boiler, in order that the steam supplied to 
the cylinders, all of which is drawn from this chamber, 
may be as dry as it is possible to have it. 

The steam is conducted from the dome to the cylin- 
ders through the dry pipe P-Q-R, Fig. 6, which extends 
from the top of the dome to the front flue sheet or 
head of the boiler. Connected to the front end of the 
dry pipe, inside the smoke box, are two cast iron 
curved pipes 1-2, Fig. 31, called the steam pipes, 
which conduct the steam to the steam chests, or valve 

84 



THROTTLE AND DRY PIPE 



8S 



chests as they are sometimes called. The horizontal 
portion of the dry pipe extending through the boiler is 




Figure 31 

made of wrought iron, and the vertical portion T, Fig. 
6, called the throttle pipe, and which is within the 



86 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



dome, is made of cast iron. At the top end of this 
pipe, near the top of the dome, the throttle U, Fig. 6, 
for controlling the steam, is usually located, although 
not always, as it is sometimes placed in the smoke box 
at the front end R of the dry pipe. 

Formerly the throttle valve was a plain slide valve 
that moved upon a seat in which were ports similar in 
form to the steam ports in the valve chests, but 




Figure 32 



smaller in size. The principal objection to this type 
of throttle valve for a locomotive was that the pressure 
of the steam upon it when closed made it very difficult 
to open the throttle gradually, or to regulate or adjust 
it while open — two very important points in the opera- 
tion of a locomotive. A much better form of throttle 
has been largely adopted in late years. This valve is 
shown at U, Fig. 6, and on a larger scale by Figs. 32 



THROTTLE AND DRY PIPE 



87 



and 33, which give a sectional view aiid a plan of the 
throttle pipe, valve, and throttle lever. 

The valve V, Fig. 32, is a double poppet valve, hav- 
ing two circular disks D and E, which cover two cor- 
responding openings in the case C on the end of the 
pipe P. When the valve is raised and the disks are 
off their seats the steam flows in around their edges, as 
shown by the arrows. The disks are not the same 




Figure 33 



ciameter, the top one being slightly larger. The steam 
pressure in the boiler acts upon the top of disk D and 
upon the bottom of disk E. If the two disks were 
exactly the same in diameter the valve would be bal- 
anced, but this is not desirable, as there might thujs be 
a possibility of its being opened accidentally after the 
engineer had closed it. There is also another reason 
why the lower disk must be smaller in diameter than 



88 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

the upp>er one, viz., that it may be introduced through 
the top opening of the casing C, so as to cover the 
lower opening. There is thus a slightly greater 
pressure on the top surface of the upper disk tending 
to keep the valve closed, than there is on the bottom 
surface of the lower disk tending to raise the valve 
and open it. This arrangement of the parts causes 
the throttle to stay in any position it may be placed, 
while at the same time it moves comparatively easily. 
The means whereby the throttle is opened and closed 
are also shown in Figs. 32 and 33. 

The stem W-X of the valve V extends downwards 
and connects with the upper arm of the bell crank B, 
Fig. 32. Connected to the lower arm of this bell 
crank, and extending through the back boiler head 
into the cab, is a rod R, called the throttle stem. This 
rod passes through a steam-tight stuffing box in the 
boiler head. The throttle lever Y, Fig. 33, is con- 
nected to the throttle stem at L and attached to a link 
N'O at O. This link is connected to the boiler head 
by a stud and pin at N, Fig. 33. The link is free to 
vibrate slightly, which enables the connection at L to 
move in a straight line. Thi? provision causes the 
stem R, Fig. 32, to also move in a straight line in the 
stuffing box 5, which is very necessary in order that it 
may be kept steam-tight. Referring to Fig. 33, which 
is a plan view, the throttle lever Y is fitted with a latch 
1 that gears into the curved rack 2-3, in order to hold 
the throttle in any required position. The latch i is 
operated by a trigger 4, connected by the rod. 

The steam, being admitted by the throttle valve V 
into the throttle pipe P, passes on into the dry pipe 
P-Q-R, Fig. 6. This pipe, after passing through the 
front flue sheet of the boiler, is fitted with a T-pipe, 




THROTTLE AND DRY PIPE 69 

tb'is dividing it into two branches to which the steam 
pipes are connected. These connections, which arc 

all within the cmoke- 
box, are clearly illus- 
trated in Fig. 31, to 
which reference is 
now made. 

The steam pipes I 
and 2 are connected 
to each of the two 
branches of the T- 
pipe at their top 

ends and to the cyl- 

. , ^. ^ ^1 • Figure 34 

inder castings at their 

bottom ends. The steam is thus conducted to the 

valve chests. Fig. 31 shows a sectional view of one 

of the steam pipes, 2 on the right and a section of 

one of the exhaust pipes 3 on the left. The steam 

pipes are exposed to great changes of temperature 

as a result of their being within the smoke-box, and 

consequently the wide range of expansion and con- 

t.c.ctionto which they are subjected renders it very 

difficult to keep the joints tight. / 

Another difficulty is also generally encountered in 

the assembling of the various parts forming 

these connections, as, for instance, if. the upper end 

of pipe 4 in the cylinder casting, Fig. 31, were either 

too near or too far from the center line of the engine 

it would be necessary to move the end of pipe 2, 

either to the right or to the left, in order to bring it in 

line for connecting to 4. It is therefore necessary 

that there be a certain degree of flexibility in these 

connections, and this is accomplished by the use of 

ball loints. Fi^. 34 illustrates a ball joint. The end 



90 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 





of one of the pipes is turned into the form of a sphere 
or globe, and the end of the other pipe is formed into 
a corresponding concave shape, as shown in Fig. 34. 
This form of joint permits a lateral movement in 
either direction of the lower end of pipe 2 to bring it 
in line with the upper end of pipe 4. 

Another and still 
better form of flex- 
ible joint is illus- 
trated in Fig. 35. In. 
this joint a ring is 
interposed between, 
the ends of the pipes. 
One side of this ring 
is spherical and the 
other side is flat, the 
ends of the pipes 
being, shaped to cor- 
respond. With this form of joint the pipes are slightly 
adjustable in every direction, and the joints accommo- 
date themselves to any and all motion that may be 
caused by expansion and contraction. 

The exhaust pipes or nozzles are made of cast iron. 
Sometimes a single nozzle is used, such as shown in 
section in Fig. 36, having a partition at its base. In 
other cases two nozzles are used, which are generally 
cast together, as shown in section in Fig. 37. 

Fig. 38 is a plan view of single and double nozzles. 
Rings or bushings are fitted in the outlet openings of 
these nozzles for the purpose of reducing their area 
and thereby increasing the draft. These bushings are 
made of various diameters and are easily removed in 
order to substitute others with larger or smaller open- 
ings as they may be required. If the exhaust orifice is 



Figure 35 



THROTTLE AND DRY PIPE 



91 



too large the draught through the tubes will not be 
sufficient. On the other hand, if the area of the 
exhaust opening is reduced too much the back pressure 
in the cylinders will be increased, thereby limiting the 
power of the engine. It is therefore necessary that 





Figure 36 



Figure 37 



great care and good judgment be exercised hi the 
adjustment of the exhaust nozzles. 

Various devices have been invented for adjusting 
the area of the exhaust nozzles while the engine h 
working steam, but none has proved to be satisfactory, 
and the old method of adjustment when the engine is 



92 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



not working is still in vogue. A few of the many 
devices that have been invented for regulating the 
draft will be described in this connection. 





Figure 38 



Fig. 39 shows a form of adjustable nozzle that 
appears to have considerable merit. It ic the inven- 




diiHiO 



<> ZD 



mi. ^ ' 




Figure 39 

tion of Messrs. Wallace and Kellog, two engineers on 
the St. P., M. and O. R. R., and it ha? been used to 



THROTTLE AND DRY PIPE 



93 



some extent on that road, also on the Duluth and Iron 
Range R. R. The device is automatic in its operation, 
the regulating mechanism being connected to the 
reverse lever, or the reach rod, in such a manner that 
as the lever is moved from the center notch towards 
either corner the area of the nozzle is increased one- 
half square inch for each notch. It maybe set so that 
with the reverse lever in either corner there will be 
seven square inches more of nozzle area than there is 
with the lever in or near the center notch. 




ems! 



Figure 40 




The nozzle areas for different positions of the 
reverse lever are as follows: Center notch, 22 sq. in.; 
second notch, 23 sq. in.; fourth notch, 24^ sq. in.; 
sixth notch, 251^ sq. in.; eight notch, 26tV sq. in.; 
tenth notch, 28>^ sq. in., and in the corner, 2g\l sq. 
in. The device is said to work satisfactorily and has 
shown a saving in fuel of from ;^59.oo to 1^97.00 per 
month over the ordinary nozzle. 



94 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

Fig. 39 shows a plan and Fig. 40 an elevation, the 
cuts being self-explanatory. 

The nozzle itself is square, and the adjustment is 
caused by two hinged ears which open as the reverse 
lever is moved from center towards corner and close 
as the lever is hooked back towards the center notch, 
so that the more steam that is being used the larger 
will be the nozzle area, and vice versa. 

The De Lancey Exhaust Nozzle. This is another form 
of variable exhaust nozzle, as may be seen by the illus- 
trations. It is the invention of Mr. John J. De Lancey, 
of Binghamton, N. Y., who describes his device in the 
following words: 

"The object of my in^•ention is to provide a new and 
improved exhaust nozzle for locomotives, serving to 
regulate the exhaust of the engines, and thereby regu- 
latmg the draft in the boiler. 

"Fig. 41 is a side elevation of the improvement as 
applied to a locomotive, parts being broken out. Fig. 

42 is an enlarged plan view of the improvement. Fig. 

43 is a transverse vertical section of the same. Fig. 44 
is a sectional side elevation of the same on the line x x 
of Fig. 42, and Fig. 45 is a plan view of a modified 
form of the plate. 

"The improved exhaust nozzle is provided with a 
plate B, fitted onto the upper end of the exhaust pipe 
C, which may be double, a§ is illustrated in Fig. 43, or 
single--that is, the two exhausts of the engines of the 
locomotive running into a single exhaust pipe. 

"The plate B is provided with apertures D of the 
same size as the apertures at the upper ends of the 
exhaust pipe C, so that when the plate B is in a centra) 
or normal position the apertures D of the plate B fully 
register with the openings in the end of the exhaust 



THROTTLE AND DRY PIPE 




Figures 41 to 45 



96 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

nozzle. The plate B is fulcrumed in its middle on 
a pin E, projecting from a bar F, supported on brackets 
G, secured to the sides of the exhaust pipe C, the said 
plate being held in place on the brackets by nuts H, 
screwing on the threaded ends of the said brackets G, 
as is plainly illustrated in Fig. 44. The pin E, after 
passing through the plate B, also passes a short dis- 
tance into the top of the exhaust pipe C, so as to form 
a secure bearing for the plate B. On the top of the 
latter, at its sides in the middle, are arranged offsets I, 
onto which fits the under side of part of the bar F in 
such a manner that the plate B is free to turn on its 
pivot E, and at the same time is held securely against 
the upper end of the exhaust pipe C to prevent the 
plate from being lifted upward by the force of the 
exhaust steam. 

"From the plate B projects to one side an arm J, 
pivotally connected by a link K with a lever L, ful- 
crumed on the outside at the front end of the locomo- 
tive boiler, the link K passing through the said front 
end. The lever L is also pivotally connected by a link 
N, extending along the outside of the locomotive, with 
a lever O, pivoted on the cab of the locomotive and 
extending into the same so as to be within convenient 
reach of the engineer in charge of the locomotive. 
The lever O is adapted to be locked in place in any 
desired position by the usual arrangement connected 
with a notched segment P, as shown in Fig. 41. 

"When the lever O stands in a vertical position, as 
illustrated in the said figure, the openings D in the 
plate B fully register with the openings in the exhaust 
pipe C. In this position the exhaust steam can pass 
freely out of the exhaust pipe C through the smoke- 
box and smokestack of the locomotive, so as to cause 



THROTTLE AND DRY PIPE 97 

considerable draft in the fire-box of the boiler. When 
it is desirable to increase the amount of draft in the 
fire-box of the locomotive, the» engineer in charge of 
the locomotive operates the lever O either forward or 
backward, so that the lever L swings and imparts a 
swinging motion by the link K and the arm J to the 
plate B, which latter moves across the top of the 
exhaust pipe C, and part of the openings of the latter 
are cut off or diminished in size, so that the exhaust of 
the engine is retarded, and consequently the draft in 
the smoke-box and smokestack is increased, so that a 
consequent increase of the draft takes place in the 
fire-box of the locomotive. 

"It will be seen that the two openings in the exhaust 
pipe are diminished in size alike by moving the plate 
B, and it is immaterial in which direction the engineer 
moves the lever O, as the cut-off takes place either 
way." 

Fig. 46 shows the Canby draft regulating appa- 
ratus, invented by Mr. Joseph C. Canby of Orange, 
Luzerne Co., Pa., and the following description of the 
device is furnished by the inventor himself: 

"My invention relates to draft-regulating apparatus 
for locomotive and that class of boilers; and it con- 
sists of a smokestack with an adjustable petticoat or 
mouthpiece to equalize the draft through ail the flues, 
also an arrangement of pipes and valves to introduce 
fresh air into the smokestack to check the draft with- 
out opening the fire door and letting the cold air in onto 
the boiler and tubes, thereby making a great saving in 
the fuel and being better for the boiler and flues." 

Fig. 46 represents the front view of the boiler with 
the automatic draft-regulator attached. Fig. 47 is a 
horizontal section of front of boiler, showing smoke- 



98 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



stack and rock shaft. Fig. 48 is a longitudinal section 
of the smoke-box and boiler, showing the connection 
of the valve N and regulator O and the connection of 
arm J to the cab K by the rod R. 

ABC represent the sections of the smokestack, or, 
as familiarly called, "petticoats,'' arranged with lugs 




Figure 46 



D on the sides with slides E E, having slots and set 
screws F F, by which they are adjusted to the space 
required between them, thereby enabling the engineer 
to equalize the draft in the fire-box, as experience 
shows that when the draft is nearest to the bottom of 
the smoke jacket the draft is strongest on the back 
end of the fire next the flue, and by decreasing there 



THROTTLE AND DRY PIPE 



99 



and increasing it in the top flues the draft is mad< 
stronger in the 
front part of the 
fire-box. This 
more nearly 
equalizes the 
combustion of 
the fuel. The 
connecting rods 
G G are at- 
tached to the Figure 47 
lugs H, and the arms S S project from the rocking 
shaft I, which is operated by the arm J and rod K, 





Figure 48 



which runs to the cab R. By pulling or pushing the 
rod K the petticoats are raised and lowered, thus 



lOo LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

increasing and decreasing the distance from the exhaust 
nozzle L, thereby increasing or diminishing the draft. 
The air tubes M M turn up alongside the exhaust 
nozzle L, and are opened and closed by valves N N 
on the outside of the boiler. The valves are oper- 
ated by a pressure regulator O, so adjusted that they 
are opened by the steam when it passes a given pres- 
sure. This operates on the crank P and connecting 
rod Q to open the valve, thus admitting air to the 
smoke-box and decreasing the amount drawn through 
the tubes and decreasing the consumption of the coal, 
and obtaining the full benefit for all fuel consumed 
without letting the cold air in onto the hot iron. By 
this means we have the combustion automatically regu- 
lated, also obtaining the greatest amount of heat from 
the fuel consumed. 

The petticoat or draft pipe is a very important 
factor in the regulation of the draft in a locomo- 
tive, so as to have the fire burn equally in all parts of 
the fire-box. Sometimes the fire is inclined to burn 
the strongest at the back end of the fire-box. This is 
caused by the draught pipe being set too low. On the 
other hand, if 'the fire burns the strongest at the front 
it shows that the petticoat pipe is too high and it 
should be lowered. 

The exhaust nozzles become at times coated with a 
hard, gummy substance on the inside, thus decreasing 
their area, and the result of this is that the fire is torn 
and cut to pieces on account of the too strong draft 
The remedy for this is to ream out the nozzles by 
means of a reamer having a long handle whereby it 
can be introduced through the stack. 

Another device for regulating the draft is used in 
the extended smoke-box. This is a diaphragm placed 



THROTTLE .\ND DRY PIPE loi 

at an angle of 20 degrees usually, although some high 
authorities advocate placing it at 30 degrees. The 
gases impinge against the diaphragm, and are thus 
impeded in their passage to the stack, the flow being 
regulated by means of a diaphragm damper. 

One very important requisite for obtaining good 
combustion and an even burning fire in a locomotive is 
that the exhaust should fill the stack, and not go 
through it like a shot out of a cannon, chopping the 
fire and carrying with it green coal and a large volume 
of gases that are unconsumed. Close observation and 
careful work are needed to guard against the great 
waste of fuel caused by an incorrect adjustment of the 
various factors contained within the smoke-box or 
front end. 

The raising of the apron or damper on the diaphragm 
will give more draft through the top flues and cause 
the fire to burn more brightly at the back of the fire- 
box, and to lower the apron causes a stronger draft 
through the lower tubes and a consequent harder 
burning of the fire at the front. In experimenting 
along this line, a change of a quarter of an inch at a 
time is sufficient until the proper position for the apron 
is found. 

The following timely observations on the locomo- 
tive front end are from the pen of Mn K. P. Alex- 
ander, master mechanic of the Ft. S. and W. R. R., 
and were published in the May, June and July, 1905, is- 
sues of Railway and Locomotive Engineering. By 
perm.ission of Mr. Angus Sinclair, editor of that valu- 
able journal, the article is here inserted. 

"For much of the data used in this paper I take pleas- 
ure in acknowledging indebtedness to Prof. W. F. M. 
Goss of Purdue University, and committee reports of 



X02 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



the American Railway Master Mechanics* Association 
{or blue prints, reports, personal information, etc. 




Without presuming to give as much detailed informa- 
tion, this article is intended to more completely 

embrace the known fact*^ relating to the several parts 



THROTTLE AND DRY PIPE 103 

of the front end than any single report that has 
appeared. 

The "front end" includes the diaphragm, the 
exhaust nozzle, the exhaust stand, the stack, the petti- 
coat pipe, and the netting. These, with the exhaust 
jet, constitute an apparatus designed to produce the 
maximum amount of draft through the fire with the 
minimum of back pressure in the cylinders. The 
efficiency of the front end is therefore the greatest 
possible ratio of draft to back pressure. 

The Diaphragm. The total draft is said to have three 
approximately equal factors of resistance to overcome: 
the diaphragm and netting, the flues, and the fire, 
grates and ash pan. As the diaphragm (or baffle 
plate) absorbs about one-third of the energy of the 
exhaust jet, the net efficiency of the front end is evi- 
dently increased as the angle of the diaphragm is 
changed from the usual angle of 20 degrees toward a 
more horizontal position, or to an angle of probably 
25 degrees. Within certain limitations, the front end 
is also increased in efficiency by enlarging the area cf 
opening under the diaphragm damper. Indeed, it is 
said that there are foreign railroads that have in some 
manner successfully dispensed with the diaphragm and 
yet secured equalization of draft over the entire fire- 
box. 

The opening under the diaphragm damper must, 
however, be of such width horizontally as will allow 
of an area of opening equal to the total cross-sectional 
area of the opening through the flues, and at the same 
time be sufficiently contracted to retard the flow of 
gases from the fire-box long enough to consume as 
great a per cent of the gases as affecting conditions 
will permit. It must also be sufficiently contracted, 



to4 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

in self-cleaning front ends, to obtain enough velocity 
to keep the front clean of sparks. The diaphragm 
damper, or movable deflecting plate, must be set at 
such height as, with a given angle of the diaphragm, 
will produce a slightly stronger draft at the back than 
at the front end of the fire-box. The area of opening 
under the diaphragm should be greater for slow-burn- 
ing than foi free-burning coal, as, by diminishing the 
non-effective work that must be performed by the 
exhaust jet, the nozzle may be enlarged or a greater 
per cent of its effective energy may be utilized in pro- 
ducing draft through the fire. ^ 

Draft through the fire in the back end of the fire-box 
is increased by increasing the angle of the diaphragm, 
or by raising the diaphragm damper, also by about 
four horizontal rows of holes punched in the upper end 
of the top section of the diaphragm. As the amount 
of draft is proportional to the weight of steam ex- 
hausted per unit of time, it is believed that differences 
in grate area do not materially change the volume of 
gases passing under the diaphragm. Contracted open- 
ing under the diaphragm, or through the grates, prob- 
ably results in slight cylinder back pressure. When 
the area of opening under the diaphragm is enlarged 
by raising the diaphragm damper beyond a certain 
limit, the angle of the diaphragm must be decreased. 
The effect of wings projecting at each end of and below 
the diaphragm is to decrease the draft at the side 
sheets and to concentrate it along the center of the 
fire-box. The length of the horizontal part of the 
diaphragm (the distance between the upper and lower 
sections) does not affect the draft in either end of the 
f!re-box.' 

The most efficient diaphragm should give the fol- 



THROTTLE AND DRY PIPE 105 

lowing: most rapid rate of combustion, slightly 
stronger draft at the back than at the front end of the 
fire-box, sufficiently baffle the flow of gases so as to 
result in the most complete combustion that the 
affecting conditions will allow, with minimum resist- 
ance to the exhaust jet. 

Such a diaphragm should have an angle of about 25, 
instead of 20 degrees. Just below the arc of a 5-in. 
radius bend in the top end of the upper section should 
be punched about four horizontal rows of ^-in. holes 
with ^8-in. centers, extending across the upper section 
a distance equal to the distance between the steam 
pipe centers at that height. An adjustable damper 
should be applied, to regulate the area of opening 
through the holes, in order that the proper degree of 
draft may be obtained in the back end of the fire-box. 
On the back side of both sections of the diaphragm 
should be bolted perforated steel plate with y\ x 1% 
in. mesh, set with slots vertical. 

The object in increasing the angle of the diaphragm 
from 20 degrees (the usual angle) to 25 degrees, is to 
diminish the resistance to the exhaust jet. But, with 
such a change in angle, the four rows of ^-in holes in 
the upper section are necessary in order to increase 
the draft in the back end of the fire-box as much as 
the change of angle increased it in the front end of the 
fire-box. The perforated steel plate bolted to the back 
side of the diaphragm very materially assists in break- 
ing up the cinders as they strike it at an angle, thus 
considerably increasing their facility in passing 
through the ^netting and decreasing the liability of 
starting fires. This is equivalent to increasing the 
netting area or enlarging the opening of the mesh, and 
therefore lessens the total amount of work that must 



io6 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

be performed by the exhaust jet. The horizontal 
plate of the diaphragm should always, regardless of 
the height of the exhaust stand, for self-cleaning front 
ends, be located just under the top flange of the ex- 
haust stand. In order to get in sufficient netting for 
free steaming this plate should never be set higher 
than 2 in. below the center line of the smoke-box, nor 
more than 6 in. below the top of the nozzle. 

The Exhaust Jet and Nozzle. The most accurate, reli- 
able and comprehensive data on the form, density and 
efficency cf the exhaust jet, is contained in the 1866 
report of a committee of the American Railway Mas- 
ter Mechanics' Association, under the chairmanship 
of Robert Quayle of the Chicago and Northwestern 
Ry. The matter in this paper referring to the exhaust 
jet, especially the measurements of vacuum and pres- 
sure in stack and front end, is largely based on that 
report. 

The cross-sectional form of the exhaust jet is influ- 
enced by. the form and dimensions of the channel sur- 
rounding it, even though not in actual contact. It is 
supposed that, in the stack, the vacuum around the 
column of the exhaust tends to compact it and thus 
prevent contact with the stack until it reaches nearly 
to the top of the stack. Whether this is true or not, 
personal experiments indicate that when the surround- 
ing channel is within a certain distance of a column of 
steam issuing from a taper nozzle, the jet is apparently 
attracted to and comes in actual contact with the 
enclosing channel. Accurate tests made by the Mas- 
ter Mechanics' Association Committee show beyond 
question that the exhaust jet does not, and preferably 
should not, fill the stack at or near its base, but that 
it comes in contact with the stack only quite near the 



THROTTLE AND DRY PIPE 107 

top. The foregoing facts should be remembered in 
connection with calculating the diameter of petticoat 
pipes. The plan of the angle of the exhaust jet is not 
like an inverted frustrum with sides of straight lines, 
as is commonly supposed. Its form, between the 
nozzle and its point of contact with the stack, is rep- 
resented by two slightly concave curved lines. It is 
in actual contact with the stack only about 10 or 12 in. 

Vacuum gauges (measured in inches of water) show 
that the vacuum between the wall of the stack and the 
column of the exhaust jet, at a point one-third of the 
length of the stack from its top, is 1.50, midway of its 
length it is 2.52, and at about 17 in. from its base it is 
3.61. At a point midway between the smoke-box cir- 
cumference and the nozzle, on a line with the center of 
the arch, the vacuum is 2.54. 

The pressures in the center of the exhaust jet are, at 
about 12 in. above the nozzle, 59.3; 24 in. above the 
nozzle, 44.6, and about 6 in. below the top of the arch, 
28.5. The gauge also showed that the pressure dimin- 
ished rapidl}'^ as it was moved from the center toward 
the circumference of the jet, varying in velocity from 
576 to 292 ft. per second. Increasing the number oi 
pounds of steam exhausted, per unit of time, or increas- 
ing the boiler pressure, increases the velocity and 
diminishes the spread of the jet, resulting in increas- 
ing the vacuum. 

The direction of the gases in every part of the 
smoke-box and stack is from the nozzle tip up toward 
the exhaust jet, and not directly toward the stack. 
The smoke-box gases and sparks are slightly enfolded 
within, but largely entrained by the exhaust jet. The 
induced action of the jet is greatest and the intermix- 
ing or enfolding action least, at the nozzle. It is 



io8 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

believed that as the mixing action is increased th^ 
induced action is diminished, with no resulting gain, 
and that therefore the more compact the jet the higher 
will be its net efficiency. 

It is claimed that the efficiency of the jet is un- 
changed, providing the weight of steam exhausted per 
unit of time is equal, whether the engine is working 
at long cut-off with heavy impulses of the exhaust at 
long intervals, cr working at short cut-off with quicker 
or lighter impulses at shorter intervals. The nozzle 
diameter should be as great as affecting conditions will 
permit. 

Increasing the rate of combustion by undue contrac- 
tion of the nozzle or grate area results in considerable 
decrease in evaporation per pound of coaL This is 
due to back pressure in the cylinders and to excessive 
spark losses and incomplete combustion of the gases 
in the fire-box. Increasing the rate of combustion per 
square foot of grate surface per hour from 61.4 to 240.8 
lbs., decreased the evaporative efficiency 19.2 per cent 
and increased the pounds of sparks per hour from 46 
to 160 lbs. 

There is doubt as to whether a splitter or bridge in 
the nozzle is of any benefit under any possible condi- 
tions. However, apparently good results have been 
obtained by enlarging a nozzle equal to the cross- 
sectional area of a 34^-in. or ^-in. splitter, when such 
splitter was placed in the top of the nozzle at right 
angle to the partition in the exhaust stand. Any pos- 
sible advantage of such a bridge would be its effective- 
ness in overcoming the form of the exhaust (in an 
exaggerated form represented by the shape of a figure 
8) due to the action of the exhaust jet in exhausting 
somewhat from side to side instead of exactly vertical, 



THROTTLE AND DRY PIPE 109 

this being due to the deflecting influence of the ex- 
haust stand partition and the inner angle of the nozzle. 

The most efficient form of exhaust nozzle is the 
single one, with its interior in the form of a frustrum 
of a cone, ending at the top end with a parallel cylin- 
der 2 in. long. The distance from the nozzle to 
choke of 14-in. stack 52 in. long, on a 58-in. front 
end, should not exceed 50 in. or be less than 40 in., 
for maximum efficiency. The distance from nozzle to 
top of smoke arch with a 14-in. straight stack 52 in. 
long should not be less than 22 in. nor greater than 38 
in. The distance from nozzle to top of arch with a 
i6-in. straight stack 52 in. long should not be less than 
28 in. nor greater than 38 in. The distance between 
nozzle and choke of stack should be slightly increased 
for the highest steam pressure. 

The Exhaust Stand. The cross-sectional area of 
choke in each side of exhaust stands (when choked at 
all) should at least equal the area of the largest nozzle 
that may be applied. Bulged, or pear-shaped, stands 
are objectionable on account of interfering with the 
free passage of the gases from under the diaphragm 
damper. Stands should be not less than 19 in. high. 
They should have a partition in them to prevent the 
exhaust from one side effecting back pressure in the 
other side of the engine, but such partition should not 
be less than 8 in. nor more than 12 in. high, and it 
should not extend a greater height than to a point 
10 in. from the top of the stand. 

The Stack. For a 54-in. front end, the highest effi- 
ciency is obtained by a tapered stack, tapered 2 in. 
per foot, with its smallest diameter a distance of iy% 
in. from its base. The greater the height of stack the 
greater will be its efficiency. Tapered stacks, whether 



no loco:motive engineering 

long or short, should equal in diameter at inside oi 
choke one-fourth of the diameter of the arch. The 
diameter of the stack should be diminished as the 
nozzle is raised. 

Professor Goss gives the following formula for 
determining correct nozzle heights. H equals height 
of stack, k equals distance in inches between center 
line of boiler and nozzle, <^ equals diameter of choke 
of stack, and D equals diameter of front end. 

Formula for Tapered Stacks. When nozzle is below 
center line of boiler: <^= .25 D-f .16//. When nozzle 
is above center line of boiler: ^ = .25 D — . 16 h. When 
nozzle is on center line of boiler: d= .25 D. 

Formida for Straight Stacks. When nozzle is below 
center line of boiler: ^= (.246 -f .001 23 H) D + .19//. 
W^hen nozzle is above center line of boiler: d^ (.246 + 
.00123 H) D - .19 //. 

The Petticoat Pipe. As a means of increasing the 
induced action of the exhaust jet, rather than as a 
means of equalizing front and back the draft on the 
fire, double petticoat (or draft) pipes add to the effi- 
ciency of the front end. When the distance between 
the nozzle and the choke of the stack (the top of the 
arch, with a straight stack) is not great enough to 
make a double pipe practicable, a single pipe is bene- 
ficial. The efficiency of the draft pipe is mainly due 
to its forming a longer orifice through which the 
exhaust must pass, thereby augmenting the induced 
action of the exhaust jet by solidifying it, it not being 
essential or desirable that the jet come in actual con- 
tact with the draft pipe. In fact, the pipe should be 
so large that the jet will not touch it. 

In a 58-in. front end the best results were obtained 
with a 14-in. choke stack, choke 12 in. above top of 



THROTTLE AND DRY PIPE in 

arch, nozzle 45 in. from choke, with a double petticoat 
pipe. The highest net efficiency was when the bottom 
end was set even with (but none below) the top of the 
nozzle. The top end of the upper section was set 13^ 
in. below the choke of the stack. The total distance 
from nozzle to top of upper section, in this position, 
was 28^ in. The smoke-box vacuum decreased as the 
distance was lengthened to 31 in., and the back pres- 
sure in the cylinders increased as the distance was 
shortened from 29 to 28 in. The double petticoat pipe 
used in above test was of following dimensions: lower 
section, 10 in. diameter by 1 1 in. long; upper section, 
13 in. diameter by 10 in. long. The flare on lower sec- 
tion was 7 in. high by lyj^ in. diameter at bottom; 
flare on upper section was 2 in. high by 15 in. diameter 
at bottom end. 

The Netting. No data is on record of the amount of 
resistance to the exhaust jet due to the front end net- 
ting, or perforated steel plate. The total area of net- 
ting should be as great, and its mesh as large, as 
conditions will, with safety, permit, as the open area 
is considerably reduced at each impulse of the exhaust 
by sparks in process of being broken up sufficiently 
small to pass through. As the direction of the sparks 
in the smoke box is from every point toward the 
column of the exhaust jet, instead of directly toward 
the stack, the netting should be set so that, as nearly 
as may be, the sparks will strike it at right angle to 
its face. 

Although some railroads use coarser and some finer 
m^sh, it is probable that the most preferable is netting 
with 2^ X 2^ mesh No. ioj4 double crimped steel 
wire, or -^^ x ij4 in. perforated steel plate, with the 
plate set so that the slots run vertically instead of 



112 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

horizontally. The chief objection to the perforated 
steel plate is that it necessarily contains less open area 
in proportion to its closed area than netting. A point 
in its favor, however, is that sparks cannot as easily 
wedge in the perforations as in the mesh of the netting. " 

Questions 

122. What are the main factors in the transmission 

of the steam from the boiler to the cylinders? 

123. Describe the steam dome. 

124. What is the object in placing a dome on a 
locomotive boiler? 

125. How is the steam conducted from the boiler to 
the cylinders? 

126. Where are the steam pipes located? 

127. Where is the throttle usually located? 

128. Describe the old style of throttle. 

129. What was the objection to such a throttle? 

130. Describe in general terms the modern improved 
throttle. 

131. Why is the lower disk smaller in diameter than 
the upper one? 

132. What kind of a joint is used for connecting the 
steam pipes to the dry pipe within the smoke-box? 

133. Describe a ball joint. 

134. What other kind of joint is often used for mak- 
ing these connections? 

135. What are the exhaust nozzles? 

136. Why are rings or bushings usually fitted in the 
outlets of exhaust nozzles? 

137. If the exhaust orifice is too large, what is the 
result? 

138. What is the effect upon the fire if the exhaust 
outlet is too small? 



THROTTLE AND DRY PIPE 113 

139. What is an adjustable exhaust nozzle? 

140. What is the function of the petticoat, or 
draft pipe? 

141. If the draft pipe is set too low, how is the 
fire affected? 

142. If the fire burns too strong at the front, what 
should be done with the draft pipe? 

143. Why is it necessary to reaui out the exhaust 
nozzles at times? 

144. What other device for regulating the draft is 
placed in the extended smoke-box? 

145. At what angle is the diaphragm usually placed? 

146. What effect does this have upon the gases on 
their way to the stack? 

147. How is regulation of the draft accomplished 
with the diaphragm? 

148. What is a very important requisite for good 
combustion in a locomotive fire-box? 

149. How does the raising of the apron or damper 
of the diaphragm affect the burning of the fire? 

150. How will the fire be affected if the apron is 
lowered ? 

151. How much should the apron be moved up or 
down at a time, when making adjustments for draft? 



CHAPTER IV 
VALVES AND VALVE GEAR 

In a certain "catechism" of the locomotive the fol- 
lowing question and answer appear: "Q. What is a 
locomotive? A. A locomotive is a boiler and two or 
more engines mounted on wheels." This answer, 
while not very definite, is certainly "short and to the 
point." 

Two types of locomotive engines are in use, viz., 
simple and compound. 

A simple engine, whether stationary or locomotive, 
is an engine in which the steam is made to do work in 
but one cylinder, after which it is exhausted into the 
atmosphere, or, as is the case with many stationary 
engines, the exhaust steam passes into a condenser in 
which a vacuum is maintained, and the steam is there 
condensed. 

A compound engine is an engine in which the steam 
is made to do work in two or more cylinders before it 
is allowed to escape into the atmosphere or condenser. 
Ihe expansive properties of the steam are thus utilized 
m a much higher degree than with the simple engine, 
and great economy in fuel is the result. 

As an entire chapter is devoted to compound loco- 
motives the subject will not be enlarged upon at this 
stage, but the attention of the student will now be 
directed to a study of the valves, valve gear, etc., of 
a simple engine. 

In Fig. 31, Chapter III, is given a sectional view 
through the smoke-box, saddle plate and cylinder 
castings of a simple engine, having a flat or D slide 

114 



VALVES AND \ALVE GEAR 



IIS 



valve. Figs 49 and 50 show respectively a front end 
view of the cylinder, valve chest and saddle plate cast- 
ings, and a section through the same parts showing the 
steam and exhaust passages. These castings require 
to be of the best grade of iron, neither too soft nor too 
hard. 



.fTl/(Ti fTi rTi m\rTi 




Figure 49 



Cylinders and valve seats are generally cast together 
vith the bed plates or bed castings A A, Figs. 49 and 
50. Sometimes the bed castings are made separate 
from the cylinders and in one piece, and the cylinders 
are then bolted to it about at the line B C, Fig. 49. 
The usual practice, however, is to cast one-half of the 
Ded casting with each cylinder and then bolt the two 
haWes together at the line D D, this being the center 
line of the engine. 



ii6 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

The bed castings are secured to the smoke-box by 
bolts through the flanges E E, and the cylinders are 
bolted to the frame F F by bolts G and H, Figs. 49 
and 50. A structure is thus formed that is able to 
withstand the tremendous strains to which it will be 
subject. 

By reference to Fig. 50 it will be seen that there are 




Figure r> 



two passages in the bed casting leading to the cylin- 
der. The one L S is the live steam passage, and to 
this is connected the steam pipe 84, Fig. 31, Chapter 
III, and the other one ;r x is the exhaust passage lead- 
ing from the cylinder to the smoke-box where the 
exhaust nozzle is attached. 

Fig. 51 gives a longitudinal sectional elevation of 
the cylinder^ valve chest- valve, etc.. showing th^ 



VALVES AND VALVE GEAR 



II 



steam passages more clearly. Fig. 52 is a plan of th( 
cylinder and guides and shows the valve seat with its 
ports, the steam chest cover and valve being removed. 
The steam passage A on approaching the steam chest 
is divided into two branches, which terminate in open- 




¥lGURE 51 

ings B B at each end of the valve seat (see Figs. 51 
and 52). This causes the steam to be delivered at 
both ends of the steam chest and on top of the slide 
valve, which covers the ports P P and the exhaust port 
X X when in its central position (see Fig. 51). 

The steam chest is a square cast iron box open at 



i8 



LOCOMOTIVE EXGIXEERING 




jQl 



s: 






h 



i=j 





• •r 


• 


• 


^.^ 








1 Or 


m 


1 


• 




X- 


HI^HHHIH 


• 






Q- 


OQ 


1 


^» 






■ , 



A 



• • • • y 

-^^ ^P 03) — cgr 



VALVES AND VALVE GEAR 119 

top and bottom and resting upon the top of the cylin- 
der casting. The steam chest cover rests on top of 
this box and the whole is held down upon the cylinder 
by strong bolts K K, Fig. 49, forming a steam-tight 
joint, and within this valve chest the slide valve per- 
forms its important work. 

The invention of the D slide valve in its present 
form is the result of the investigations of Murdoch, who 
was an assistant to James Watt, the man who con- 
tributed more than all others towards the development 
of the steam engine and its practical application. No 
young man who aspires to become a locomotive engi- 
neer should rest satisfied until he has obtained a 
thorough knowledge of the construction, operation, 
and adjustment of the slide valve. Many have been 
the efforts made to displace it with other types of 
valves, and while no doubt in stationary work other 
forms of valves may be better adapted to the condi- 
tions, yet the slide valve in some form or another still 
holds its own with the locomotive. 

The functions that a slide valve must perform in 
order that the engine may do efficient work are five in 
number, and they are as follows: First, it must admit 
steam into one end only of the cylinder at the same 
time. Second, it must cover the steam ports so as not 
to permit the passage of live steam through both steam 
ports at the same time. Third, it must allow the 
steam to escape from one end of the cylinder before it 
is admitted at the other end, so as to give the steam 
that is to be exhausted time to escape before the pis- 
ton commences the return stroke. Fourth, it must 
not permit live steam to enter the exhaust port direct 
from the steam chest. Fifth, it must close each steam 
port on the steam side before it is opened on tht^ 



I2C 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



exhaust side; this is for the purpose of utilizing the 
expansive force of the steam. 

Figs. 53 to 58, inclusive, show the general construc- 
tion of the D slide \'alve and illustrate the various 
positions assumed by it during one stroke. Fig. 53 




FlGUEE 53 

ihows the valve in its central position and explains 
the meaning of the word lap. Outside lap, often 
referred to as steam lap, is the distance that the edge 
of the valve overlaps the steam ports when it stands 
central or at mid-travel, and is that portion of the 



Figure 54 



valve marked L and indicated by the distance between 
the lines O P. Inside lap, frequently referred to as 
exhaust lap, is that portion of the valve that overlaps 
the two bridges of the valve seat when the valve stands 
central, and is shown at A and A. Fig. 59. 



VALVES AND VALVE GEAR 



121 



Inside clearance, sometime- called exhaust lead, is 
the space between the inside edges of the exhaust arch 
of the valve and the bridges when the valve stands 
central. It means just the reverse of inside lap; that 
»<i, the distance between the inside edges of the exhaust 

■nil Bvii 

Figure 55 

arch is slightly greater than the distance between the 
inside edges of the steam ports, so that it does not 
entirely cover them when in its central position. 
Inside clearance is shown at B and B, Fig. 6o. The 
purpose of inside lap is to delay the release of the 




steam and to hasten compression. The amount of 
inside lap is small, seldom exceeding }i of an inch, 
and for fast passenger engines it is better to have 
none, as it causes the engine to be quicker. The pur- 
pose of inside clearance is exactly the opposite to that 
of 'inside lap. It hastens release and dela\'s compres- 



122 LOCOMOTIVE EXGIXEERING 

sion. It rarely exceeds g^^ of an inch, and is only used 
on very fast running engines. Good judgment and 
great experience are required in order to determine 
the proper amount of inside clearance and upon what 
classes of locomotives it should be used. 

In locomotives for ordinary service the valves have 
no inside clearance. Cut-off, Fig. 54, refers to the 
closing of the steam port by the valve, thereby cutting 
off the flow of live steam to the cylinder before the 
piston has completed its stroke. Compression refers 
to the early closure of the passage between the cylin- 
der and the exhaust port. This point is reached when 
the inside or exhaust edge of the valve has closed the 
steam port, as shown in Fig. 55, wherein the valve is 
assumed to be traveling in the direction indicated by 
the arrow. A small portion of the steam is thus re- 
tained in the cylinder to be compressed by the advanc- 
ing piston, which thus meets with a slight cushion at 
the end of its stroke, and all shock and jar is thus 
prevented. Release occurs when the exhaust edge of 
the valve opens the steam port and allows the steam 
that has completed its work in the cylinder to escape 
into the exhaust port, as shown in Fig. 56. 

Lead, otherwise called steam lead, is the amount of 
opening given to the steam port by the valve for the 
admission of live steam to the cylinder when the pis- 
ton is at the commencement of its return stroke. The 
lead is indicated by the letter A in Fig. 57. 

Travel is the distance through which the valve 
travels, otherwise its stroke. Over travel is the dis- 
tance the steam edge of the valve travels after the 
steam port is wide open, indicated by distance between 
lines O and T, Fig. 58. 

The objects aimed at in giving a valve outside or 



VALVES AND VALVE GEAR 



123 



steam lap are: First, that the steam may be cut off 
before the piston reaches the end of its stroke, and the 
steam thus enclosed within the cylinder be made to do 
the work throughout the remainder of the stroke by 
reason of its expansive properties, and secondly, it 

Figure 57 

causes the exhaust port at one end of the cylinder to 
be opened before the steam port at the other end is 
uncovered for the admission of steam. If a valve had 
no outside lap it would admit steam throughout the 
whole stroke, or in other words, "follow full stroke.*' 




Figure 58 

Another bad effect of no lap would be a late exhaust, 
by which is meant that the exhaust would occur at one 
end of the cylinder at practically the same moment 
that admission occurred at the other end. This would 
have a tendency to retard the motion of the piston. 
The term clearance, as applied to a locomotive, 



I^^ 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



means all of the space between the face of the valve 
and the piston when the latter is at the end of its 
stroke. Mechanical clearance means the distance 
between the cylinder head and the piston when at the 
end of its stroke. 




Figure 59 

The object of giving a valve lead is that the steam 
port may be opened slightly for the admission of live 
"steam just before the piston reaches the end of its 
stroke, in order that there may be a cushion of steam 
to receive the piston and re\'erse its motion at the end 




Figure 60 



^f the stroke, thus making the engine quicker in its 
action. Lead increases on a locomotive as the cut-off 
13 made earlier or shorter, which is done by bringing 
the reverse lever nearer the center notch of the quad- 
rant. The increased lead is caused by the radius of 



VALVES AND VALVE GEAR 125 

the link. This will be explained later on, towards the 
close of this chapter. 

The term valve gear, as applied to a locomotive, 
includes eccentrics, rods, links, rockers, etc., by which 
the valves are given motion and by which their move- 
ments are regulated and controlled. As it is very 
necessary that a locomotive should be capable of being 
moved by steam either backward or forward, a revers- 
ible valve gear^is required. Various devices have been 
invented for this purpose, but the shifting link motion 
has, after many years' trial, been found to be the most 
reliable and best and is to-day the standard in this 
country. 

Fig. 61 shows a general view of the valve gear of 
one side of a locomotive. The center of the go-ahead 
eccentric is shown at A, and the center of the back-up 
eccentric is at B. The eccentric straps are shown con- 
i:ected to the eccentric rods, or blades as they are 
usually termed, and these in turn are attached to the 
link, the go-ahead eccentric /being connected to the 
top end of the link and the back-up eccentric to 
the bottom end. The link saddle S is a plate span- 
ning the center of the link and securely bolted to it. 
Upon the saddle a pin is formed, to which the lower 
end of the link hanger is connected, the top end of 
the hanger being attached to the shorter arm of the 
tumbling shaft, while the other arm of the tumbling 
shaft is connected to the reversing rod which extends 
back to the cab and is connected to the reverse lever. 

The link and ends of the eccentric rods connected 
to it are thus supported and are also free to be moved 
either up or down by means of the reverse lever. The 
link block, upon which the link slides freely, is 
attached by a pin to the lower arm of the rocker shaft, 



■QQ 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




VALVES AND VALVE GEAR 127 

and the valve rod is connected to the top arm of the 
rocker. The rocker shaft rotates in the rocker box, 
which is rigid, and the motion of the eccentric is thus 
indirectly imparted to the valve; that is, the motion 
of the eccentric is reversed by the rocker arm. This 
is termed indirect valve gear and is the standard type 
in this country, although there are some engines fitted 
with direct valve gear in which both arms of the 
rocker shaft extend upwards, or in the same direction, 
in which case the motion is not reversed. 

The valve is connected to the valve stem usually by 
a yoke or frame that loosely embraces the top of the 
valve which is formed to receive it. This allows the 
valve to change its position vertically, with respect to 
the valve stem, as the face of the valve and the seat 
wear away. Sometimes the valve is secured by nuts that 
engage with a thread on the stem. In any case it is 
essential that the valve should have a small amount of 
freedom in its connection with the stem in order to 
guard against its becoming cocked or tilted on its 
seat, thus allowing the steam to blow past it. 

The cut Fig. 61 shows the link in full forward gear; 
that is, the full throw of the go-ahead eccentric A 
affects the link block and rocker arm and through 
these the valve. By throwing the reverse lever back 
into the extreme back notch of the quadrant the link 
will be raised until the pin that connects the lower or 
backing eccentric blade to the link will be in line with 
the pin of the link block, which will then be affected 
by the full influence of the back-up eccentric B, and 
the engine will run backward. 

It has been previously stated that the lead was 
increased by bringing the reverse lever nearer the 
center notch of the quadrant, or in common phrase- 



128 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

ology "hooking her back,'' in order to cause cut-off to 
take place earlier, and that the increase in lead was 
due to the radius of the link. The radius of the link 
is the distance, on a horizontal line, from the center 
of the main driving shaft, which carries the eccen- 
trics, to the center of the rocker shaft. Ordinarily an 
increase in the lead is obtained by moving the eccen- 
trics ahead on the shaft, but in this case the eccentric 
straps are moved back on the eccentrics by raising the 
link, as will readily be seen by a study of the diagram, 
Fig. 6i, The nearer the center of the link — that is, the 
center of the saddle pin — is brought to the center of 
the link block, the more are the eccentric straps moved 
back upon the eccentrics and the shorter will be the 
cut-off and the greater the lead. 

With locomotives having very long eccentric blades 
there will not be such a marked increase in the lead as 
with those having very short blades, for the reason 
that the short rods will cause the straps to move 
farther around and back on the eccentrics by raising 
the link to which the ends of the rods are connected, 
whereas if the rods were longer their ends at the link 
could be raised considerably and still not materially 
affect the positions of the eccentric straps. This 
would indicate that in setting the valves of a locomo- 
tive, when it comes to adjustments for lead, attention 
should be paid to the radius of the link, which, as 
before stated, is the distance from the center of the 
main driving shaft to the center of the rocker shaft. 

Authorities differ in regard to the amount of lead 
that locomotive valves should have at full gear. The 
older practice was to give an eighth of an inch, but of 
late years the tendency has been to cut it down to a six- 
teenth, or a thirty-second, and some authorities recom- 



VALVES AND VALVE GEAR 129 

mend even negative lead, which means no lead at full 
gear. They claim that too much lead is detrimental 
to an engine, causing more wear and tear to the valve 
gear, also that the preadmission of steam is too great 
at mid-travel. With a 4-ft. radius the valves should 
be set line and line, (no lead) forward and back gear. 
With a 6-ft. radius one-sixteenth of an inch is required, 
and with a radius of 8 ft. the valves should have one- 
eighth of an inch positive lead forward and back gear. 
The travel of the valve is also reduced by hooking the 
reverse lever back from either full gear towards the 
center notch of the quadrant. 

Questions 

152. What is a simple engine? 

153. What is a compound engine? 

154. Why is a compound engine more economical in 
fuel than a simple engine is? 

155. Describe the saddle plate of a locomotive. 

156. How is this casting secured to the smoke box? 

157. What supports the cylinders? 

158. How does the steam pass from the steam pipes 
in the smoke-box to the valve chests? 

159. Describe the steam chest. 

160. Who invented the D slide valve? 

161. How many functions must a slide valve per- 
form? 

162. What is the first of these? 

163. What is the second function ? 

164. Describe the third function. 

165. What must the valve do in the fourth function? 

166. What is the fifth function of the slide valve? 

167. What is outside lap? 

168. What is inside lap or exhaust lap? 



I30 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

169. What is inside clearance or exhaust lead? 

170. What is the purpose of inside lap? 

171. How much inside lap is usually given a loco- 
motive slide valve? 

172. What is the purpose of inside clearance? 

173. What class of engines is it used on? 

174. Do the valves of locomotives in ordinary serv- 
ice have or need inside clearance? 

175. What is meant by cut-off, as applied to a slide 
valve ? 

176. What is compression? 

177. When does compression begin? 

178. What advantage is there in compression? 

179. When does release occur? 

180. What is steam lead? 

181. What is meant by valve travel? 

182. What is over travel ? 

183. What are the objects aimed at in giving a valve 
lead? 

184. What would be the result if a valve had no 
lead? 

185. Name another bad effect that would occur if a 
valve had no lead? 

186. What is meant by clearance ? 

187. What is mechanical clearance? 

188. What causes the lead on a locomotive valve to 
increase when the reverse lever is hooked back towards 
the center notch? 

189. What does the term valve gear include, as 
applied to a locomotive? 

190. What kind of a valve gear does a locomotive 
require? 

191. Why are two eccentrics needed on each side of 
a locomotive? 



VALVES AND VALVE GEAR 151 

192. What is the link saddle? 

193. How is the link and the ends of the eccentric 
rods that are connected to it supported? 

194. For what purpose is the link block? 

195. What is an indirect valve gear? 

196. What is a direct valve gear? 

197. How is the slide valve usually connected to the 
valve stem? 

198. What other method is sometimes used? * 

199. V^hy; should a slide valve have a small amount 
of freedom in its connection? 

200. What effect does it have upon the cut-off when 
the reverse lever is brought back towards the center 
notch ? 

201. What is the radius of the link? 

202. Explain why it is that when the reverse lever 
is hooked back the lead increases. 

203. How does this affect locomotives having long 
eccentric blades? 

204. About how much lead is usually given an 
engine at full gear? 

205. How should the valve be set when the radius 
of the link is 4 ft.? 

206. What should the lead be with a 6-ft, radius? 

207. How much lead should be given the valves 
when the radius is 8 ft.? 

208. How is the travel of the valve affected by 
hooking the reverse lever back? 



CHAPTER V 

VALVE SETTING 

As considerable time has been devoted to a study of 
the mechanism by which the valves of a locomotive 
are operated, it is now in order to take up the subject 
of valve setting, a subject which every young man 
who is ambitious to become a successful locomotive 
engineer should endeavor to thoroughly familiarize 
himself with. In fact, such knowledge is becoming 
more and more a necessity each year. This is indi- 
cated by the increasingly rigid examinations to which 
applicants for promotion from firemen to engineers are 
subjected. 

The correct setting of the valves of a locomotive 
means that the adjustment of the positions of the 
eccentrics on the driving axle and the lengths of the 
eccentric blades, valve rods and valve stems is such 
that each valve will give .the required distribution of 
steam to the piston that it is to serve. This has 
already been explained under the heading, Function 
of the Slide Valve. As the great majority of locomo- 
tives are equipped with indirect link valve gear, atten- 
tion will now be directed to the setting of valves 
operated with this type of valve gear. One of the first 
things to be done is to see that the driving wedges are 
properly adjusted, also that the main rod keys at both 
ends are correctly tightened. It is also well to see 
that the eccentric rods are connected in the right way, 
which means the go-ahead eccentric rod to the top end 
of the link and the back-up eccentric rod to the bot- 
tom end of the link. 



.VALVE SETTING 133 

Don't forget that with the indirect link motion the 
eccentric that controls the valve always follows the 
crank pin. That is, when the pin is on the forward 
center, for instance, the body of the go-ahead eccentric 
will be above the axle and that of the backing eccen- 
tric will be below, and both eccentrics will be advanced 
towards the pin sufficient to overcome the lead and lap 
of the valve. This is termed angular advance of the 
eccentric. The eccentrics should be placed as near as 
possible in these positions and the set screws slightly 
tightened. Of course the positions of the eccentrics 
can only be guessed at on the start. Their correct 
positions on the driving shaft can only be arrived at 
after the dead centers have been located. The reverse 
lever should also be tested to see that the lat^h will 
enter each extreme notch. 

The next most important proceeding is to get the 
port marks properly located on the valve rod. This, 
of course, must be done while the steam chest cover is 
off. The valve stem key should be examined to see 
that it is securely tightened. Next examine the back 
end of the valve rod and see that it will connect with 
the rocker arm without cramping or twisting the valve 
stem, which would be liable to throw the ends of the 
yoke up or down, thus cramping the valve. As the 
steam chest cover is off, the chest itself should be 
firmly clamped to the cylinder by screwing some of the 
nuts down upon washers or bushings, being careful not 
to mar the copper joint on top of the chest. The 
valve stem gland should be in place and the valve rod 
connected up in order to keep the stem at its proper 
height, as any variation in the height of the stem will 
cause an error in the use of the tram. If there is any 
lost motion between the valve and the valve yoke (and 



134 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

there should be a little), it should, while getting the 
port marks, be taken up by the use of liners between 
the back of the valve and the yoke, as shown at A in 
Fig. 62. Next move the valve back just far enough 
to permit a piece of thin tin to be inserted between 
the edge of the forward port and the forward edge of fhe 
valve at point V. The valve is now in the correct 
position for the forward port mark to be placed upon 
the valve rod; so with a prick punch make a small cen- 
ter at C on the cylinder, and from this point with the 
valve tram, as shown in the cut (Fig. 62), scribe the 
line F on the valve rod. Next remove the liners and 
place them at the front of the valve at A, Fig. 63, and 




Figure 62 

move the valve ahead far enough to allow of the 
insertion of the piece of tin between the edge of the 
back port and the back edge of the valve, as shown at 
V, Fig. 63. Now take the tram and from point C scribe 
the line B on the valve rod. Next, using a box square, 
scribe a parallel line on the valve rod, and at the two 
points where lines F and B intersect the parallel lines, 
make two small centers. Center F is the forward port 
mark and center B is the back port mark. 

The mid-travel or central position of the valve on its 
seat should also be marked, which is done in the fol- 
lowing manner: With a pair of dividers find the exact 
center between points F and B and at this point make 
another small center M, Fig. 63. This point will rep- 



VALVE SETTING 135 

resent the central position of the valve. The points F 
and B indicate the points of admission and cut-off, and 
the distance from F to M or from B to M equals the 
lap of the valve. If the valve has neither inside lap 
nor inside clearance the point M will represent the 
points of both release and compression. If the valve 
has inside lap or inside clearance it will be necessary 
to locate two additional points on the valve rod. 
These points may be found in the following manner: 
Set a small pair of dividers to a distance equal to the 
inside lap or inside clearance, whichever the valve 
has, and from the center M describe a small circle, and 
the two points where the parallel line on the valve rod 
bisects this circle will indicate the points of release if 




Figure 63 

it is inside clearance or of compression if it is inside 
lap. These two points are very seldom used in 
practice, but if, owing to the construction of the valve, 
it should become necessary to use them it should 
always be remembered what they represent, whether 
inside lap or inside clearance. 

The next important move in valve setting is to find 
the four dead centers. It is very important that the 
dead centers be accurately located. Although the 
crosshead moves very little while the crankpin is near 
the dead center, yet the valve is moving at nearly its 
greatest speed, being at about half travel, and a very 
slight error in locating the dead centers will seriously 
affect the accuracy of the whole work. 



136 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

The term dead center is commonly taken to mean 
that the driving wheels are in such a position that the 
centers of the driving axles and the centers of the 
crankpins are in a horizontal line, but this is not always 
the dead center. Theoretically the term implies that 
the center of the crosshead pin, the center of the 
crank pin, and the center of the driving axle be exactly 
in line, regardless of whether that line be horizontal 
or inclined. Therefore the crankpin must pass two 
dead centers in each revolution, viz., the forward dead 
center and the back dead center. Consequently there 
are in locomotive valve setting four dead :enters to be 
located and marked: first, the right forward dead cen- 
ter; second, the right back center; third, the left for- 
ward center, and fourth, the left back center. It 
makes no particular difference which center is found 
first, but for convenience the right forward center may 
be taken. Of course finding the dead centers of a 
locomotive implies that the driving wheels are to be 
revolved more or less. This means that the engine 
must be pinched ahead or back as required, which 
involves considerable labor on the part of helpers, as 
many an engineer who has served an apprenticeship in 
the shop can testify. Many well conducted shops are 
equipped with roller devices of various designs which 
are placed under the drivers to be revolved. Such a 
machine is illustrated in Fig. 64. It may be operated 
by one man by means of the lever shown. In some 
up-to-date shops the rollers for moving the drivers are 
operated by small air engines. 

And now to find the right forward dead center. 
Turn the driving wheels forward until the crosshead is 
within an inch of the forward end of the stroke, as 
indicated in Fig. 6$. Th^n, having first examined the 



VALVE SETTING 



^37 



wheel cover to see that it is securely fastened, make a 
center at any convenient point on it, as at C; also 
make a center at point F on the forward guide block. 
Now, using a short tram called a cross head tram, 
describe from point F an arc G on the cross head; also 



I h 




Figure 64 



with one point of a longer tram, called a wheel tram, 
set in center C describe the arc A on the tire of the 
wheel. Next turn the wheel ahead as indicated by 
the arrow until the cross head has passed the limit of 
its forward travel and has receded on its return stroke 
far enough to bring the arc G a short distance back of 



,3» LOCOMOTI\-E ENGINEERING 

U-I 




VALVE SETTING t^9 

ihe point of the tram, one point of which is set in 
center F. Now reverse the motion and pinch the 
wheels slowly backward until the arc G comes directly 
under the point of the tram. Then stop, and with the 
w^heel tram set in center C scribe an arc B on the tire, 
as indicated in Fig. 66. Now with a pair of hermaph- 
rodites describe the arc D E on the tire, and at the 
points where the lines A and B intersect arc D E make 
small centers, and with a pair of dividers find the exact 
center between these two points. This center is indi- 
cated in the cut (Fig. 66) by the letter H. This point 
is the dead center, and a small circle should be drawn 
around it to distinguish it from the other centers. 

Perhaps the query might arise in the mind of the 
student, why is it that in turning the wheels ahead 
until the pin had passed the center they were turned 
far enough to bring the cross head back of the position 
it was in when arc G was scribed? The answer is, that 
when arc G was scribed the pin was pushing the cross 
head forward and all the lost motion between pins and 
brasses was taken up in that direction. If, after the pin 
had passed the center and the crosshead was traveling 
back, it had been stopped at arc G, the lost motion 
would have been taken up in the other direction, for 
the reason that the pin was now pulling instead of 
pushing the crosshead. The result of this would have 
been an error in the location of the arc B and also of 
the point H. But by pulling the crosshead back past 
arc G and then reversing the motion and allowing the 
pin to push the crosshead until the dead point H was 
located, the lost motion was taken up in the same 
direction as when arc G was first drawn. 

Having now found the dead center at point H, the 
next move is to throw the reverse lever into the 



^40 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




VALVE SETTING 141 

extreme back notch, so as to take up all the lost 
motion in the valve gear while backing up. Now 
start to pinch the engine back, and with one point of 
the wheel tram in center C, watch the center H and 
when it comes exactly under the other point of the 
tram, stop. The engine is now on the right forward 
dead center, and a vertical line should be scribed on 
the guides exactly in line with the front end of the 
crosshead. This line indicates the extreme forward 
travel of the crosshead, and it ;s important that it 
should be placed there. 

While the engine is in the position it now is, that is, 
on the right forward dead center, and the valve gear 
in the backward motion *with all the lost motion taken 
up in that direction, take the valve tram and from 
point C, Fig. 62, scribe an arc on the valve rod, start- 
ing slightly above the parallel line and extending con- 
siderably below it. The distance of this arc, measured 
on the parallel line from center F, indicates the posi- 
tion of the valve, as regards lap or lead for backward 
motion. The reason this arc is drawn below the line 
is that the back-up eccentric is moving the valve, and 
by having the arc below the parallel line it is easily 
distinguished from the other arc soon to be scribed for 
the forward motion. Now pinch the wheels back until 
the crankpin is about 6 in. above the dead center. 
Then put the reverse lever in full forward motion and 
pinch ahead until the pin is again on the forward dead 
center, and with the valve tram again set in point C 
scribe another arc on the valve rod, this time extend- 
ing above the parallel line. The distance this arc is 
ahead or back of the point F indicates the amount of 
lap or lead the valve has in the forward motion, when 
the crankpin is at right forward dead center. 



142 



LOCO^IOTIVE ENGINEERING 



Before making any adjustments, go round to the 
left side of the engine and find the left fofward dead 
center; also mark the left valve rod for both forward 
and back motion in the same manner as the right valve 
rod vvas marked. Having completed the location of 
the forward dead centers for both sides, the next move 
is to start on the right-hand side again, and pinch the 
engine towards the right back dead center, which is to 



RIGHT HAND 



f 



B j 16 M F 4 




^v^ 



D 




r 



^. 



LEF=T HAND 



±1 
32 



M 



JUB 






Figure 67 



be found in the same manner as the forward one was. 
Next find the left back dead center, marking the valve 
stems and crossheads in both instances exactly as 
before. 

The valve rods wnil now show a marking similar to 
that illustrated by Fig. 67, w^ith the exception that Ine 
figures may not coincide, as the figures shown in Fig 
6"/ are merely assumed for purposes of explanation. 
As before stated, the arcs which have been scribed 



VALVE SETTING 143 

across the parallel lines indicate by their position 
relative to the port marks F and B whether the valve 
has lap or lead at either dead center. If an arc comes 
between the port marks it indicates lap, if outside it 
indicates lead. Referring to Fig. (i'j^ the two forward 
motion arcs on the right side valve rod, which are 
distinguished from the back motion marks by being 
above the parallel line, show that the valve has ^-in. 
lead at the forward port mark and -i-^-'wi, lap at the 
back port mark. 

When the valve tram reaches from center C to either 
center B or center F, it indicates that the valve is at 
the point of cut-off, and since the valve is to travel 
equal distances each way from these points, it follows 
that by measuring the distance from B or F to the 
arcs, it may be determined how much and whether to 
lengthen or shorten the eccentric blades. First take 
the right forward motion. The distance from F to 
the mark above the line is % in., and from B to the 
mark for back motion is ^V *"•» therefore the length of 
the right forward motion eccentric blade must be 
changed so as to equalize these distances, and the 
point to be determined is, shall it be lengthened o- 
shortened? This can be done in the following man- 
ner: Take a small pair of dividers and find the exact 
center between the two tram marks above the parallel 
line. If this center is ahead of center C the eccentric 
blade must be shortened, if back of it the blade must 
be lengthened. If the engine has a direct valve 
motion, this rule is to be reversed and the adjustments 
made accordingly. 

The next point to be determined is, how m.uch shall 
the blade be lengthened or shortened? A good rule 
to follow in this instance is this: When the arcs on 



144 i^OCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

the valve rod are both back ( i ooth ahead of the port 
marks F and B, the lengtU of the <^ccentric blade 
should be altered an amount equal to ene-half the sum 
of the distances between the port ma' ks and the arcs, 
or if one arc is back and the other is ahead of their 
respective port marks, the length c/ the blade should 
be changed an amount equal to one half the difference 
of the distances between the port f narks and the arcs. 
In this particular case the valve has traveled too far 
back, as shown by the ^^^-in. l^ad on the forward port 
mark and the TQ-'in. lap on the back port mark. 
Therefore the blade must be shorf^ned one-half the sum 

of these distances, or — — ^^= /^ in. This will square 

the valve for right forward motion, or in other words 
equalize its travel in either direction from mid posi- 
tion, as may be proved by the following simple calcu- 
lation. The valve had J^-in. lead at the forward port 
mark, the eccentric blade is shortened /^ in., thus 
bringing the point of the tram that much nearer to F. 
Then }{ -^% = fy in.^ which is now the lead at the 
forward end. At the back end, instead of lead, the 
valve had -^^ in. lap. 

After the blade is shortened |^^ ioo it will be found 
that the valve has been moved that distance ahead 
from its former position. Then by deducting the jV 
in. lap from J^ ^^' change it will be found that the 
valve has -^^ in. lead at the back end also. It may be 
assumed that the valves are to have ^V i"- ^^^^ when in 
full gear, and as the valve under consideration now has 
3^^ in. at both ends, it will be necessary to reduce it by 
turning the eccentric back upon the shaft. However, 
no changes should be made until all the tram marks 
on both sides of the engine have been examined and a 



VALVE SETTING 145 

memorandum made of the changes required, as, for 
•nstance, R. F. Ecc, shorten blade -^^ in., -^j^ in. lead 
off. 

The tram^ marks for the right backward motion 
should be examined next. These marks are below 
the parallel line, and measurements show that the 
valve has ^^g- in. lead at the forward end and yi in. lap 
at the back; therefore the blade of the right back up 

eccentric must be shortened thus, - — ^^= i^ in. 

This will square the valve for right backward motion, 
but it will still have ^^An. lap at both ends, when ^V'"^- 
lead is required; therefore the eccentric must be 
turned ahead. These changes should be noted down 
as follows: R. B. Ecc, shorten blade /g- in., ^V'^"- 
lead on. 

If the upper and lower rocker arms are of the same 
length the figures for changing the length of the eccen- 
tric blades will be all right, but if, as is often the 
case, the lower arm is shorter than the upper one, the 
length of the blades will not need to be changed quite 
as much as is indicated by the marks on the valve rod. 
But it will be assumed in this instance that the arms 
are of equal length, and the lengths of the eccentric 
blades for the right-hand side may be adjusted accord- 
ing to the above figures. 

Next go to the left-hand side. By reference to Fig. 
67 it will be seen that the valve has 1^6 "^"- ^^P ^^ ^he 
left forward motion in front and ^^-\n. lap behind. In 
this instance the valve has not traveled far enough 

back, therefore the blade must be lengthened one- 

3 _ _i 

half the difference between these distances or ^^ — ^=i 

2 

5*^^ in. This will equalize the lap at both ends, making 



1:46 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



it now g\ in., and in order to obtain the 3V-in. lead 
desired it will be necessary to move the eccentric ahead 
on the snaft an amount sufficient to overcome the 
^Vin. lap plus ^\'\n. lead, a total of ^^ ^n- This is to 
be noted down as follows: L. F. Ecc, lengthen blade 
/j in., fVin. lead on. 

Examination of the two left back motion marks 
shows that the valve has 3^-in. lead at the back and 




c 



LEFT HAND 



.F M B. 

dT — • tl 






RIGHT HAND 



f 




.B M f=: 



i 



Figure 68 



■in. lead in front. Therefore the back up eccentric 



iiade should be lengthened 



+ ^' 



sw 



1 3 
¥4 



in. This will 



give the valve J^-in. lead at both ends, but as ^V-»n- 
lead is all that is required, it will be necessary to turn 
the eccentric back on the shaft far enough to over- 
come li in. of this surplus lead. Note this down 
also as follows: L. B. Ecc, lengthen blade if in., H 
in. lead off. 



VALVE : SETTING • 147 

The lengths of all the eccentric blades should now 
be adjusted according to the figures obtained, after 
which it will be in order to set the eccentrics. It is 
generally best to set the forward motion eccentric first, 
because it is easier to get at than the back motion one 
is; then if the backward motion eccentric needs to be 
changed enough to affect the lead in forward motion, 
the forward motion eccentric can easily be reset, and 
it will need to be moved so little ^that the backward 
motion will not be affected enough to require any 
further attention. 

As before stated, it is desired to give the valve 
j^-in. lead in full gear in both torward and backward 
motion, and before setting the eccentrics it will be 
necessary to have lead marks on the valve rods for a 
guide. To get these marks, set a pair of dividers to 
the distance between the centers B and F, Fig. 6S, plus 
the lead, in this instance Ij4 in. +^V= ^ii '^^' Then 
with one point of the dividers in center F scribe an arc 
E across the parallel line, back of center B, also from 
center B scribe an arc D in front of F. These points, 
E and D, will serve as guides in setting the eccentrics 
for lead. The next move is to place the engine on 
the dead center; either one will do, but for conven- 
ience it may be assumed that it is the right forward 
dead center. When adjusting the lengths of the 
eccentric blades it was found. that with the engine and 
reverse lever in this position the valve had /^-in. lead. 
This must be reduced to 3*3^ in., and it might be done 
by simply turning the right forward motion eccentric 
back upon the driving shaft, but that would take up 
the lost motion in the opposite direction to what it is 
when the engine is running ahead, and this would 
cause an error in the working of the valvco The 



148 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

proper method is to turn the eccentric backward far 
enough to take off all the lead, and then turn it slowly 
ahead until the valve tram will reach from center C, 
Fig. 62, to the lead mark D, Fig. 6S. Next throw the 
lever into full back gear and proceed to set the right 
backward motion eccentric. 

After getting the right backward motion eccentric 
blade adjusted to the correct length it was found that 
the valve had^Viti* ^^P ^t both ends; therefore this 
eccentric should be slowly turned ahead on the shaft 
until the tram will reach from center C to lead mark 
E, Fig. 68. This v/ill square the right-hand valve 
and give it the desired lead, and the next move is to 
go around to the left side, throw the reverse lever into 
full gear ahead again and pinch the engine onto left 
forward center. 

After adjusting the left forward eccentric blade to 
the correct length it was found that the valve had 
^Vin. lap. The eccentric must therefore be turned 
ahead until the tram will reach from center C on the 
left cylinder to lead mark D on the left valve rod. 
Next proceed to set the left backward motion eccen- 
tric, and in doing this the wheels should be pinched 
ahead about 6 in., then place the reverse lever in full 
back gear and pinch the engine back onto the center. 
This is done to take up all the lost motion in the direc- 
tion in which the engine is to run — a very important 
matter that should never be lost sight of in working 
from the dead center for either forward or backward 
motion. After getting the left backward motion 
eccentric blade the right length the valve had H'^^« 
lead at both ends of the stroke. The eccentric should 
therefore be turned back sufficiently far to take off ail 
the lead. Then with all the lost motion taken up, turn 



VALVE SETTING 149 

the eccentric slowly ahead until the tram point will 
drop into lead mark E, Fig. 68. 

The engine is now square, and the valves have the 
correct amount of lead all around. The eccentrics 
should be securely fastened in their proper location 
either by set screws or keys, and it will be next in 
order to ascertain the points of cut-off, so that they 
may be equalized as near as possible, for be it remem- 
bered that no matter how accurate the valves may have 
been set, as regards lead, travel, etc., they very seldom 
cut off the steam at the same distance from the com- 
mencement of the stroke at each end of the cylinder, 
and one cylinder may be getting more steam than the 
other. This is due to the fact that the link motion is 
not a perfect valve gear, various errors being intro- 
duced by the angularity of the main rod, and eccentric 
rods, and the off-set of the link pin holes from the 
link arc, but these errors can be almost entirely elimi- 
nated by making certain changes, among which may 
be mentioned the off setting of the link saddle stud, 
although with case-hardened links and the saddle 
rigidly bolted to the link this method is not always 
practicable. 

Another very common method is to equalize the for- 
ward motion by changing the length of the backward 
motion eccentric blades, thus sacrificing equality of 
lead and cut-off in the back gear, but as a locomotive 
does the greater portion of its work in the forward 
gear, except it be a switch engine, this plan is per- 
missible. 

Another method employed to some extent is to 
sacrifice equality of lead in both forward and back gear 
for equality of cut-off. But before either plan can be 
adopted it will first be necessary to find the points of 



ISO LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

cut-off as the valves are now set. As a locomotive 
engine performs the principal part of its work with 
the reverse lever hooked back towards the center notch 

and the valves cutting off at early points in the stroke, 
it is more important that the steam should be equally 
distributed with the lever in the working notch than 
with it down in the corner. 

Passenger engines usually cut-off at from 4 to 6 in., 
and freight engines at from 6 to 9 in. As in setting 
the eccentrics, a start at finding the points of cut-off 
may be made with the engine on either dead center, 
but for convenience it may be assumed in this instance 
that the engine has been placed on the right forward 
dead center. First try the cut-off in backward motion. 
Pinch the wheels backward until the crosshead has 
traveled about 6 in. from the extreme travel mark on 
the front end of the guides. Then stop the motion, 
and with the point of the valve tram in center C, Fig. 
62, move the reverse lever back of the center until the 
tram will drop into the forward port mark F. Put the 
lever one notch farther back, then pinch the wheels 
backward until the tram again drops into the forward 
port mark F, thus indicating that the point of cut-off 
has been reached. Now measure the distance from 
the front travel mark to the front end of the cross 
head. Suppose it is found to be 7^ in. Chalk this 
down on the front end of the outside guide. Use the 
outside guide for the backward motion, because the 
backward motion eccentric is on the outside. Now 
pinch the wheels farther back until the steam is cut off 
on left side back end of cylinder, which can be ascer- 
tained by the use of the tram in the same manner as 
on the right side. It may be assumed that cut-off 
takes place when the piston has traveled 8^ in. from 



VALVE SETTING 151 

beginning of stroke. Now turn the wheels still farther 
back, until the right pin passes the front center and 
reaches the point where cut-off takes place, which 
will be assumed to be 8 in. from commencement of 
stroke. These figures should all be marked down with 
chalk on the outside guides for the backward motion 
as they are found, and the rev^erse lever must be left in 
the same notch until all four points of cut-off for back- 
ward motion are located. Next pinch the engine still 
farther back until the left pig passes the front center 
and cut-off for this end is reached, which maybe tajcen 
at 9 in. for the present. 

These investigations show that cut-off for the right 
cylinder occurs at 7^ in. of the backward and 8 in. of 
the forward stroke, and that for the left cylinder cut- 
off takes place at 9 in. of the backward and 8^ in. of 
the forward stroke. These figures indicate that the 
right-hand valve is traveling a little too far ahead and 
the left valve a short distance too far back, and the 
cut-off for each side may be equalized by slightly 
changing'the lengths of the backward motion eccen- 
tric blades; that of the right-hand one must be length- 
ened and the left one will need to be shortened, and 
how much to change them may be found as follows: 

Taking the left side first, cut-off occurs on the front 
end of cylinder at 9 in. and on the back end at 8^ 

in., and the average is -^ — ^=8^ in., which is the 

distance from each end of the stroke at which cut-off 
will occur when it is equalized. Now pinch the wheels 
forward enough to bring the crosshead 8^ in. from 
the end of the stroke and enough more to take up all 
the lost motion when turning back. Next pinch the 
engine backward until the crosshead is again S/^ in. 



152 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

from the beginning of the stroke at the front end, and 
with the valve tram in center C, Fig. 62, scribe a mark 
on the valve rod. This mark will be a short distance 
ahead of center F, and this distance shows how much too 
far back the valve is traveling, and the eccentric blade 
must be shortened enough to throw the valve ahead 
that much. This will equalize the cut-off for the left 
side in the backward motion, and the right side should 
be treated in the same manner, except that in this case 
the backward motion eccentric blade must be length- 
ened, because the valve was traveling too far ahead, 
the cut-off for the forward stroke being 8 in. and for 
the backward stroke 7^ in., and the average is 

— -^— ^= 7^ in., which will be the point of cut-off for 

the right side in backward motion when the proper 
change is made. 

This will leave considerable difference between the 
two sides, the cut-off on the left side occurring at Sj4 
in. and on the right side at y% in., but this will be 
remedied later on, and the next move will be to equal- 
ize the cut-off for the forward motion by commencing 
with the backward stroke on the .right-hand side. 
Pinch the engine ahead until the pin passes the for- 
ward center and draws the crosshead back 6j^ in. from 
the beginning of the stroke. Move the reverse lever 
ahead to the corner, then move it slowly backward 
until the valve closes the port, as will be indicated by 
the valve tram when it reaches from center C to center 
F, Fig. 62; then put the lever in the first notch ahead 
of that position and leave it there until the points of 
cut-off have all been found for the four strokes. Now 
pinch the engine ahead until the tram again shows that 
the point of cut-off is reached. This may be assumed to 



VALVE SETTING 153 

be 8 in. back of beginning of the stroke. Mark this 

down on the front end of right inside guide, then turn 

the wheels ahead and get the cut-off for the front end 

of left-hand cylinder, which will be, say 7 in. Again 

pinching ahead, find the cut-off for the back end of 

the right-hand side to be 8^ in., and still turning 

ahead, find cut-off for back end of left side to take 

place at 8 in. 

For convenience, the cut-off for the left side may be 

equalized first. It was found that cut-off occurred at 7 

in. for the backward stroke and at 8 in. for the forward 

7 + 8 
stroke, the average being = 7^ in., and in order 

to equalize the travel of the valve, which now 
travels too far ahead, it will be necessary to lengthen 
the eccentric blade. Pinch the wheels back far enough 
to bring the crosshead within less than 7^ in. of the 
end of the stroke, so that when turned ahead again all 
lost motion may be overcome. Now pinch ahead 
again until the crosshead is exactly 7^ in. from the 
beginning of the stroke, and with the valve stem tram 
in center C scribe a mark on the valve rod, and the 
distance of this mark from center B is the amount 
that the eccentric blade must be lengthened. This 
will equalize the cut-off for forward motion on the left 
side, and the right side next demands attention. Here 
the point of cut-off for the backward stroke was 8 in., 
and for forward stroke 8^ in., the average being 

O I 03/ 

~- 8^ in., which is the point at which cut-ofi 

for forward motion on the right side must be equalized 
for the present. 

The right forward motion eccentric blade will also 
need to be lengthened, as the valve travels too far 



154 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

ahead, and the correct amount to lengthen the blade 
may be found in the same manner as with the left 
side. This will leave the points of cut-off for forward 
motion as follows: for right-hand side, 8^ in.; left 
side, 'jY^ in. In backward motion, as equalized, cut- 
off for right side is 7^ in., left side 8J^ in. It will 
thus be seen that in forward gear cut-off is earliest on 
left side and in back gear it occurs latest on that side. 
In order to overcome this unequal condition one of 
two things may be done, either lengthen the link 
hanger on the left side or shorten hanger on the right 
side. The former method will be adopted, but before 
making any alterations it will be necessary to ascertain 
the amount to lengthen, and this may be done in the 
following manner: 

Put the reverse lever in the same notch that it was 
in when the cut-off in forward gear was found, and 
measure the distance from any stationary point directly 
above or below the upper link hanger pin on the left 
side to the center of that pin. Now pinch the engine 
ahead far enough to bring the left crosshead the same 
distance from the beginning of the stroke as the right 
crosshead was when cut-off took place, which distance 
is 8^ in. This is where cut-off must occur on the left 
side also. Now move the reverse lever ahead about 
four notches, and then with the point of the valve 
tram in center C move the lever slowly back until cut- 
off occurs as indicated by the tram. Nowmeasure the 
distance again, from the same stationary point to the 
center of the upper hanger pin. The difference 
between this distance and the distance between these 
two points as first found is the amount the left hanger 
must be lengthened to equalize the cut-off on both 
sides, or raising the tumbling shaft box slightly more 



VALVE SETTING 155 

than this on the right-hand side would bring about the 
same result as shortening the link hanger on that side. 
This change will slightly affect the operation of the 
valves in back gear, for this reason: The nearer the 
link block is to the center of the link, the shorter will 
be the cut-off, and the change made, viz., lengthening 
the hanger, while it throws the block farther below 
the center of the link in forward gear, thus delaying 
the cut-off, at the same time brings the link block 
nearer the center of the link in back gear, thus acceler- 
ating the cut-off, and this is the result wished for to 
cause the two sides to cut off nearer equal in back 
gear, as it will be remembered that cut-off on the left 
side occurred at Sj4, in. in the back gear and 7^ in. on 
the right side in back gear. The amount that the 
hanger has been lengthened may not exactly equalize 
the cut-off in back gear, but it will bring it near enough 
for all practical purposes, for the reason that the 
engine does very little work in back gear. Owing to 
the space occupied by the piston rod in the back end 
of the cylinder, the cut-off should occur i^^or ^ in. later 
in the back end than in the front end of the cylinder if 
it is desired that the same volume of steam be admitted 
to each end of the cylinder. 

The next points to be determined relate exclusively 
to the exhaust opening and closure with reference to 
release and compression. These events, as has been 
alread}^ explained, are controlled by inside clearance 
and inside lap. If a valve is line and line inside, 
having neither inside clearance nor inside lap, the 
point M, Fig. 63, will indicate both the opening and 
closure of the exhaust, but if a valve has inside clear- 
ance, release will occur before the valve has reached 
its central position; or if the valve has inside lap, 



156 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

closure of the exhaust passage will occur before the 
valve has reached its central position. 

Now in order to ascertain at what point in the stroke 
either one of the above named events takes place, use 
a pair of small dividers and from center M describe on 
each valve rod a small circle, the radius of which equals 
the inside lap or inside clearance, as the case may be, 
and make two small centers where the circle crosses 
the horizontal line, also mark each with some distin- 
guishing mark to show whether it represents inside lap 
or inside clearance. 

Having gotten these marks properly located, proceed 
to test each event by the same method as with the 
cut-off, marking down the point in each stroke at which 
the event, be it release or compression, begins, after 
which compare the figures, and the changes required 
may be made in the same way as with the cut-off. 
Equalizing the cut-off incidentally affects exhaust 
closure, and as compression is of more importance 
than release, it should be made as near perfect as pos- 
sible. There is, however, but one method by which 
the various events in the working of a valve may be 
made thoroughly clear, and that is by the use of the 
indicator. 

The maximum port opening and maximum travel of 
the valve may be found thus: Place the reverse lever 
in full gear; that is, "down in the corner." Then 
pinch the wheels one complete revolution, and with 
the valve tram in center C, mark the extreme travel of 
the valve in each direction. The distance between the 
extreme points indicates the maximum travel of the 
valve, and the distance from either extreme point to 
the port mark indicates maximum port opening. 

The minimum travel and minimum port opening 



VALVE SETTING 157 

may be found by placing the reverse lever in the cen- 
ter notch of the quadrant, and then repeating the opera- 
tion of turning the wheels one revolution, while at the 
same time the distances are noted with the tram in 
the same manner as before. 

Questions 

209. What does the correct setting of the valves of a 
locomotive mean? 

210. What two very important details should be 
looked after first when preparing to set valves? 

211. What should be done regarding the eccentric 
rods? 

212. With indirect v^alve gear, what is the position 
of the eccentric that controls the valve? 

213. What is meant by angular advance of the 
eccentrics? 

214. What should be done with the reverse lever 
before commencing to set valves? 

215. What is the next most important proceeding in 
valve setting? 

216. How should the valve rod connect with the 
rocker arm ? 

217. If the valve rod should be cramped or twisted, 
how would this affect the valve? 

218. What should be done with the steam chest and 
valve stem gland ? 

219. What should be done with the lost motion 
between the valve and valve yoke while getting the 
port marks? 

220. Where should the port marks be placed for 
convenience? 

221. Where will the point indicating mid travel or 
central position be? 



158 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

222. How is the lap indicated by the marks that are 
now on the valve stem ? 

223. If the Valve has neither inside lap nor mside 
clearance, what point indicates release and compression? 

224. If the valve has inside lap or inside clearance, 
how may they be measured and properly marked on 
the valve stem? 

225. What is the next important move in valve set- 
ting after getting the port marks? 

226. What is the meaning of the term dead center 
as applied to an engine? 

227. How many dead centers must the crankpin 
pass in each revolution? 

228. How many dead centers are to be located and 
marked in setting the valves of a locomotive? 

229. Describe in general terms the method of locat- 
ing and marking a dead center. 

230. How should the guides be marked while the 
engine is on dead center? 

231. How are, the marks for lap or lead located on 
the valve rod ? 

232. What should be done before making any adjust- 
ments? 

233. When marks for lap or lead are located on the 
valve stem, how are they distinguished from each 
other? 

234. How are the eccentric rods adjusted as to 
length? 

'235. Give the rule for finding out how much the 
eccentric blade must be lengthened or shortened in 
order to get the correct travel for the valve. 

236. Suppose the valve has ^-in. lead on the for- 
ward port and -rs-in. lap on the back port, how much 
must the blade be shortened? 



VALVE SETTING 15^ 

237. If a valve has yV-iii- ^^^^ ^.t the forward port 
and J^-in. lap on the back port, what should be done 
with the eccentric rod? 

238. After the lengths of all the eccentric blades 
have been adjusted so as to give the valve correct 
travel, what comes next? 

239. Which eccentric should be set first? 

240. Why? 

241. What precaution should be taken when turning 
the eccentrics ahead to increase the lead? 

242. After getting the eccentrics in their correct 
position and firmly secured, what is the next move in 
valve setting? 

243. Mention some of the causes for variation in the 
cut-off. 

244. How may this variation in the cut-off be 
equalized? 

245. Mention another very common method of 
equalizing the cut-off. 

246. Where should the reverse lever be placed while 
equalizing the cut-off? 

247. At what point in the stroke do passenger 
engines usually cut off? 

248. At what point in the stroke do freight engines 
usually cut off? 

249. By what means may the point of cut-off be 
ascertained? 

250. Suppose it is found that for the left-hand 
cylinder cut-off occurs at 9 in. of the backward and 
8^ in. of the forward stroke, at what distance from 
each end should it occur when equalized? 

251. What must be done to bring about this equali- 
zation? 

252. If, after equalizing the cut-off on both sides, it 



i6o LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

is found that on the right-hand side it occurs at 8| 
in. in forward gear and y% in. in back gear, and that 
on the left side cut-off occurs at /^^ in. in forward and 
8^ in. in back gear, what may be done to overcome 
the difficulty? 

253. How may the amount to lengthen or shorten 
the link hanger be ascertained? 

254. Why should cut-off occur a little later in the 
back end than in the front end of the cylinder? 

255. What are the next points to be determined? 

256. If a valve has inside lead or clearance, how 
will release be affected? 

257. How may the points of release and compression 
be ascertained? 

258. How does equalizing the cut-off affect exhaust 
closure? 

259. Which is the more important, release or com- 
pression? 

260. How may the maximum port opening and 
maximum travel of the valve be found? 

261. How may the minimum port opening and 
minimum valve travel be found? 



CHAPTER VI 

PISTON VALVES AND BALANCED VALVES 

Hitherto the plain D slide valve alone has been con- 
sidered in the discussion of the subject of valves and 
valve setting. 

There are, however, many other types of valves in 
use on locomotives, including piston valves, balanced 
slide valves, ported valves, roller balanced valves, etc. 

Some of these possess many merits of their ovi^n, 
while others have very few points to recommend 
them. 




Figure 69 

The principal objection to the use of the D slide 
valve is the large amount of friction caused by the 
action of the steam pressing the valve against its seat, 
and inventors have racked their brains for many years 
in efforts to produce a valve that would work without 
friction, and at the same time give a correct distribu- 
tion of the steam to and from the cylinders. 

The piston valve, while practically balanced, owing 
to the pressure of the steam acting upon each end, is, 
nevertheless, not a perfectly balanced valve unless the 

i6i 



l62 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



valve rod extends through both ends of the valve 
chamber, and this necessitates an extra gland and set 
of rod packing. In order to more clearly illustrate 
this idea, reference is made to Figs. 69 and 70. Fig. 
69 shows a plain D slide valve, and it will be noticed 
that the full pressure of steam in the valve chest acts 
upon the back of the valve. Of course there is a cer- 
tain amount of back pressue from the steam port and 
exhaust port that tends to overcome the direct pressure; 
still there is an enormous strain on the valve gear that 
is required to move a valve under such conditions. 



STEAM 




V y 




STEAM 


f^XHAUST^ 




i 1 


^^^^^^^^^^^^H 



Figure 70 



Fig. 70 shows a solid piston valve with outside admis- 
sion, being thus identical in action with the D valve. 
No valve rod is shown in either cut, but it will 
easily be seen that with the valve rod attached 
to but one -end of the piston valve the area of that 
end will be decreased just so much, and the valve 
will be unbalanced by an amount equal to the sectional 
area of the valve rod, but this amount is so insignifi- 
cant that builders very seldom add the extended valve 
rod, and so the piston valve may be considered as 
balanced, the only friction being- that due to the 



PISTON \'ALVES AND BALANCED VALVES 163 

weight of the valve and the friction of the packing 
rings when the v^alve is fitted with them. In some 
types of piston valves the live steam is admitted 
inside, between the heads, as shown in Fig. 71, and 
the exhaust passes out around the ends, but the same 
principle of balancing is retained as with the outside 
admission type, for the reason that the -pressure is 
applied between the ends of the valve instead of on 
the outside as with the other type. The sketches here 
given do not show the valves in their true propor- 
tions, being merely used to illustrate the principle 



0* 

/ 




V LIVE y 




/ 


f^TEAM^ 




JH 




■JL' 


^HMHH 



Figure 71 



upon which the piston valve works. In practice the 
valve is made as long as possible, in order that the 
ports leading to the cylinder may be shortened to the 
minimum. 

Another type of piston valve is shown in Fig. 72. 
This valve is made hollow for lightness and has pack- 
ing rings at each end to prevent the steam from pass- 
ing into the ports until at the proper moment. The 
edges of these packing rings control the admission ot 
steam to the ports in the same manner as do the edges 
of the D valve, and when the valve is one of outside 



104 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



admission it is set in the same manner as the D valve 
is. But if admission is from the inside, as shown in 
Fig. 73, the movement of the valve is reversed, as is 
the method of setting also. As it is very essential 
that the packing rings at each end of a piston valve be 
steam-tight, a certain element of friction is introduced 
in this manner. In the larger number of cases where 
piston valves are used, central or inside admission is 
the rule, a great advantage of this type over outside 
admission valves being that the larger portion of the 
cooling surface of the valve chamber is reserved for 




Figure 72 

the exhaust steam. Another advantage is that of 
having only exhaust pressure against which to pack 
the valve rods, and make the joints for the heads of 
the valve chamber. 

In taking charge of an engine having piston valves, 
an engineer should always first "look her over" and 
note the positions of the eccentrics with relation to 
the crank pin. He should also take a look at the 
rocker shaft if there is one. He will then be able to 
satisfy himself as to whether the valves have outside 
or inside admission, a very important thing to know 
in case anything should happen out on the road that 
necessitated resetting of one or both of the valves to 



PISTON VALVES .\ND BALANCED VALVES 165 



enable him to bring his engine home. As before 
stated, the movement of a piston valve having outside 
admission is precisely the same as that of a D slide 
valve, but it is well to note the fact that while the 
great majority of engines fitted with D slide valves 
have indirect valve gear, still there are some in which 
the motion is direct. For the guidance of the engineer 
in such cases, the followiifg four simple rules are here 
given. 

Rule I. If the eccentrics and crank pin are together, 
that is, on the same side of the driving shaft, and there 



H 




m 

1- 


(0 




if) 


D 




D 


< 




< 


I 




I 


X 




X 


Ijj 

1 


fczziS 


1 



Figure 73 

is a rocke. arm that reverses the motion, the valve hai 
outside admission, indirect. 

Rule 2. If the eccentrics and crank pin are together 
and there is no rocker arm, but direct motion, the 
valve has inside admission, direct. 

Rule 3. If the eccentrics and crank pin are on oppo- 
site sides of the driving shaft, and there is a rocker 
arm to reverse the motion, the valve has inside admis™ 
sion, indirect. 

Rule 4. If the eccentrics and crank pin are on oppo- 
site sides of the shaft, and there is no rocker arm to 
reverse the motion, the valve has outside admission, 
direct. 



i66 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



There are, in fact, four possible combinations to deal 
with in the setting of locomotive piston valves, the 
first of which is the outside admission indirect con- 
nected valve, receiving its motion through the medium 
'^f the familiar rocker shaft, with one arm up and the 

other arm down. 
Second, inside ad- 
mission direct, in 
which both arms of 
the rocker extend 
either up or down, 
and the forward mo- 
tion of the eccentric 
rod produces a like 
forward motion of 
the valve. In these 
two combinations 
the eccentrics and 
crank pin are on the 
same side of the 
shaft. Suppose the 
crank pin to be on the 
dead center, then 
lines drawn from the 




Figure 74 



center of the shaft through the heavy portions of the 
eccentrics would be approximately in the same position 
as would the hands of a watch indicating five minutes 
to seven o'clock, assuming the crank pins to be at 9 
o'clock (see Fig. 74). Third, outside admission direct, 
in which the rocker arms do not reverse the motion 
of the eccentric blade; and, fourth, inside admission 
indirect, in which the motion is reversed by the rocker 
arms in the same manner as in combination one. 

These two latter combinations may be termed the 



PISTON VALVES AND BALANCED VALVES 167 



p.m. setting, for the reason that lines drawn through 
the center of the shaft and the heavy portions of the 
eccentrics would occupy positions similar to the hands 
of a watch indicating five minutes past five, with the 
crank pin at nine o'clock (see Fig. 75), while the set- 
ting illustrated by Fig. 74 may be termed the a.m. 
setting, and as the careful engineer always has his 
watch with him, the 
following table may 
be of service: 

Outside admission, 
indirect — 5 min. to 7 
a.m. 

Outside admission, 
direct — 5 min. past 
5 p.m. 

Inside admission, 
direct — 5 min. to 7 
a.m. 

Inside admission, 
indirect— 5 min. past 
5 p.m. 

A good rule to re- 
member in setting 
piston valves is this: 
If motion is imparted 
to the valve on the a. m. plan as described, and it is 
desired to increase the lead, the valve must be moved 
towards the crank pin, but if the p. m. plan governs 
the motion it will be necessary to move the valve away 
from the crank pin to increase the lead. 

The American Balanced Valve Co., of Jersey Shore, 
Penn., are the makers of a new type of piston valve, 
which they term "The American Semi-plug Piston 




Figure 75 



i68 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

Valve." This valve, a description of which is here 
given, has performed very efficient service since its 
introduction, and it appears destined to occupy a 
prominent position in locomotive work in the future. 
Referring to Fig. 76, an internal admission valve is 
shown. The inner sides of the two snap rings, i-i, 
are beveled. The outer sides of the snap rings are 
straight and fit against the straight walls of the valve 
spool. Against the beveled sides of the snap rings, 
solid, uncut, non-expansible wall rings, 2-2, fit. Their 



12 3 2 1 




Figure 76 

inner sides are beveled at a greater degree of angle 
than their outer sides, which fit the snap ring. 

In between the two wall rings is placed a central 
double tapered snap ring, 3. This ring is properly 
lapped, and is put in under tension, thus holding the 
wall rings apart, putting a slight grip on the snap 
rings laterally. Thus applied, the action is as follows: 
When steam is admitted to the steam chest, or central 
portion of the valve, it passes through openings in 
the spool to the space beneath all of the rings, and 
acts upon the central wedge ring direct, giving it a 



PISTON VALVES AND BALANCED VALVES 169 

lead of the snap rings in action, and forcing the wall 
rings against the sides of the snap rings, so that pre- 
vention of their excessive expansion is positive. The 
snap rings are thus expanded against the casing just 
enough to make steam-tight contact, and the central 
ring grips them there, and they are prevented from 
further expansion. This is demonstrated by with- 
drawing the valve from the valve chamber while under 
steam until the first ring in the spool is entirely out of 
the cylinder, when no increase in the diameter of the 
snap ring can be observed. It can then be pushed 
back into the cylinder again. It will readily be under- 
stood how easy it is to prevent further expansion of 
the snap ring by the pressure underneath it, when 
the degree of angle of the bevel on the inside of the 
snap ring is considered. By making this degree 
greater, the power of the central wedge ring would be 
sufficient to decrease the diameter of the snap ring, 
closing it away from the valve chamber. Therefore it 
appears that this valve has all the advantages of the 
plug valve, without the drawbacks of the plug valve, 
and it has all the advantages of the snap ring valve, 
without the drawbacks of the snap ring valve, because 
it is practically a plug that does expand and take care 
of itself, not only for the difference in contraction and 
expansion, but also for wear; yet the plug is not so 
rigid as to knock a cylinder head out before relieving 
the water from the cylinder, and yet it is absolutely 
adjusted to the diameter of the casing at all times, and 
is held there and allowed to get no larger during its 
work under pressure. The rings are so lapped that 
they are steam-tight from all directions, and the bevel 
lap joint maintains unbroken steam and exhaust lines 
at the edge of the ring. 



1 7© 



LOCOMOTIVE EXGIXEERING 




PISTON VALVES AND BALANCED VALVES 171 

Fig. '/^ further illustrates the construction of this 
valv^e, giving end and sectional views of the different 
parts. A common defect of snap ring piston valves is 
that the steam pressure gets under the rings, and 
expands them against the casing with the full force 
of the chest pressure, thus causing excessive friction, 
while at the same time the cage is worn unevenly by 
the valve working at short cut-off and over the ports. 
Under such conditions, steam-tight joints soon become 
leaky, and the leakage rapidly increases as the wear- 
ing goes on. 

A piston valve, in order to give efficient steam-tight 
and durable service, should automaticaly regulate the 
frictional contact of the rings against the cage, and 
keep the cage perfectly true. It is claimed by the 
manufacturers of the American semi-plug piston valve 
that it meets these requirements, and the claim is sub- 
stantiated by the record of an engine on the Buffalo 
and Susquehanna Railroad, which was fitted up with a 
set of these valves in June, 1901, and was in continual 
service up to April, 1904, or a little over two years and 
nine months, excepting when the engine was in the 
shop for necessary repairs, but during this time no 
repairs of any nature were required on the valves. No 
perceptible wear was detected, either of the casing or 
the rings, when the valves were removed for the pur- 
pose of exhibiting them at the St. Louis Exposition in 
1904. It is also claimed that this valve does not 
require relief valves, by-pass valves, nor pop valves, 
' and that it is handled the same as a slide valve, and 
drifts freely. 

Many locomotives are equipped with piston valves 
of different types, but the internal admission valve 
appears to be the favorite. The form of piston valve 



172 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

used by the Baldwin Locomotive Co. on their Vauclain 
engine will be fully described in the section on com- 
pound locomotives. 

One of the advantages the piston valve possesses 
over other forms of slide valves is that it maybe made 
long enough to bring the two faces or working edges 
near the ends of the cylinder, thus greatly reducing 
the clearance between the valve face and the piston. 

The term balanced valve, as used in this connection 
with reference to locomotive practice, is meant to 
include all balanced valves except those of the piston 
type. As stated at the beginning of this chapter, 
there have been many different kinds of balanced 
valves applied experimentally to the locomotive, by 
inventors in their efforts to reduce the friction between 
the face of the valve and its seat. It is stated upon 
good authority that up to January, 1904, there had 
been 573 patents issued to those who had made 
attempts to perfect the slide valve, but in the great 
majority of these cases failure has been written up 
against them. A few of the more meritorious of these 
will be described and illustrated. 

The Jack Wilson High Pressure Valve is manufac- 
tured by the American Balance Valve Co., of Jersey 
Shore, Penn., and the following description of it is 
supplied by the makers, with the exception of a few 
m.inor changes in the text. 

Valve. The valve. Fig. 'j%, is similar to the "grid- 
iron" valve, it having two faces; one face operates on 
the valve seat proper (on the cylinder) and the other 
face operates against the face of the balance plate. 
Both faces of the valve are the same, and it has no 
crown, but is open throughout. The face of the bal- 
ance plate, against which the top or back face of the 



PISTON VALVES AND BALANCED VALVES 173 




Figure 78 



valve operates, being an exact duplicate of the cylin- 
der valve seat and set in alignment therewith, what- 
ever conditions 
exist on one face 
of the valve must 
also exist on the 
other face. The 
walls of the valve 
are provided with 
ports, which pass 
from face to face 

of the valve. These ports are functional, and their 
length and width depend upon whether the valve is 
to be double or single acting; that is, whether or not 

double admission 
and double ex- 
haust openings are 
desired. The valve 
under consider- 
ation here is of 
the double act- 
ing type. 

Balance Plate. 
The Balance Plate, 
Fig. 79, contains 
the balancing 

cones MC and PC 
(main cone and 
port cone), and 
two centering ring 
grooves which 

register with like grooves in pressure plate. It also 
supplies the means for double admission and double 
exhaust openings by admitting and exhausting steam 




Figure 79 



174 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



at the face of the plate at top of valve simultaneously 
with admission and exhaust at valve face and cylinder 
valve seat. 

The face of the balance plate, Fig. 80, is an exact 
duplicate of the cylinder valve seat and forms a second 
valve seat against which the valve operates in unison 
with its operation on the cylinder valve seat, the 
second seat being held by means of the centering rings 
CR, Fig. 81, in exact alignment with the valve seat 
proper. The back or opposite side of the balance 

plate, Fig. 84, contains the 
following cones: one large 
or main cone (MC) and two 

, small or port cones (PC) on 

the interior of the main 
cone, and on which the 
packing rings are placed, 
which forms the balancing 
feature to the valve, and the 
centering ring cones. The 
balance plate is provided 
with wings (BW) which fit 
I-16 in. loose into the wings 
of the pressure plate (or into the steam chest itself), 
preventing excessive movement of plate. Taper or 
beveled packing rings set on the cones form joints 
against the pressure plate. 

Pressure Plate. The pressure plate is made as a part 
of or separate from the chest cover. In the type of 
valve here referred to, the pressure plate is made 
separate (see Figs. 82, 83 and 84) and is provided with 
wings (VV) which are machined to fit snugly into the 
steam chest; the chest being first centered with the 
valve seat by fitting over lugs on the cylinder, or by 




















D D 
DD 











-1 










D D 
DD 








—* 




■i 





Figure 80 



PISTON VALVES AND BALANCED VALVES 175 




170 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



dowel pin, and machined at the top to receive wings 
(W) of the pressure plate. Into the face of the pres- 
sure plate two grooves are cut with either straight or 
taper walls and which register correctly with the cor- 
responding grooves in the balance plate; these are 
called centering ring grooves and into them two center- 
ing rin^Ts (CR) are placed, slightly under tension. 






Figure 82 

Under normal conditions these steel rings hold the 
balance plate in alignment with the valve seat, but 
under abnormal conditions, such as dry valves, the 
strain will be taken by the wing of the balance plate 
against the wing of the pressure plate, preventing 
excessive contraction of the centering rings. Against 
the face of the pressure plate the balancing rings form 
steam joints. 

Balancing Feature. Having mentioned the three 
principal parts composing this valve, it is now in order 



PISTON VALVES AND BALANCED VALVES 177 




Figure 83 



to consider the balancing feature, which is of great 
importance, as it successfully protects the valve under 
the highest pressures. In considering the principle 
upon which the valve 
is balanced it is nec- 
essary to get clearly 
fixed in the mind the 
fact that the balanced 
area of the valve is 
changeable and that 
the change takes place 
automatically, so as to 
correspond with the 

changed condition of the valve on its seat at different 
points of its travel. 

Referring to assembled cross sectional view, Fig. 81, 
the valve is seen in central position on the seat and 

the upper seat or face of 
balance plate in position 
corresponding with the 
valve seat. The steam chest 
is centered by machined 
faces fitting over machined 
lugs on the cylinder; on 
old power, dowel pins are 
used. The chest has fin- 
ished strips at top into 
which the finished ends of 
the wings of the pressure 
plate (W) fit snugly, thus 
insuring the central position of the pressure plate 
over the valve seat. The finished wings of the bal- 
ance plate (BW) fit 1-16 in. loose between inside 
faces of the wings of the pressure plate, but the 




Figure 84 



178 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

balance plate is held perfectly central by two steel center- 
ing rings (CR). The tops of the cones on the balance 
plate are }i inch from the face of the pressure plate, 
allowing the balance plate to lift }i inch off from the 
valve, which affords perfect relief to the cylinder while 
the engine is drifting and for the relief of water from the 
cylinder. This ^-inch clearance in height adjustment 
must be maintained. The main balancing ring (MR) is 
made the proper diameter to balance the valve as great 
as possible while in its central (or heaviest) position, 
there being just sufficient area left on to insure the 
balance plate being held steam-tight on the valve. 
The interior of the main ring is open to the atmos- 
phere through the holes D, which lead to the exhaust 
cavity of the valve. 

The valve is thus balanced so that it will move per- 
fectly easy in its heaviest position, but conditions are 
changed by the opening of a steam port (and at 
instant of cut-off. See Fig. 85), at which time the 
ordinary slide valve is subjected to the upward pres- 
sure of the steam in the cylinder port, and if properly 
balanced in central position would, at this position, be 
thrown off its seat, but in this valve the port pressure 
(whatever it may be) has free access to both sides of 
the valve by reason of the passages through the 
valve to the port in the face of the balance plate which 
corresponds with the cylinder port; therefore the 
pressure in the port has no effect whatever upon the 
valve, it being on both sides of the valve face in equal 
area, and pressure, is, therefore, equalized so far as the 
valve is concerned, but the pressure in the port of the 
balance plate would lift the plate off from its seat on the 
valve if it was not also equalized, or annulled; therefore 
a port ring, PR, of proper area to balance this pressure, 



PISTON VALVES AND BALANCED VALVES 179 




/So LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING * 

is placed over each port in the inside of the main ring 
on the top of the balance plate and is open to the port 
through passage F, Fig. 8i, so that a pressure equal to 
that in the steam port is always on both sides of the 
balance plate, as well as on both sides of the valve, 
and the port pressure is rendered inoperative on the 
valve or on the balance plate. Communication from 
the cylinder port, through the valve and through the 
balance plate to the interior of the port ring, P R, 
cannot be shut off at any time, but is maintained 
throughout the travel of the valve. Therefore .the 
same pressure that is in the port at any given time is 
also on both sides of valve and pressure plate in the 
same area, and the port pressure is, therefore, not con- 
sidered in figuring the main balance for the valve. 

There is another position of the valve during its 
stroke where the slide valve is subjected to an upward 
pressure, or pressure against its face, which tends to" 
lift it from its seat; that position is at over-travel of 
the valve face over the valve seat; this position is 
shown in Fig. 86, but in this valve it will be observed 
that the top face or back of the valve travels out from 
under the seat of the balance plate exactly to the same 
extent that it over-travels the cylinder seat, and pres- 
sure is, therefore, equal on both sides of that portion 
of the valve that is over the seat at any point of travel. 
With the main ring balancing the valve fully in its 
central or heaviest position, the port ring balancing 
the port pressure, and over-travel of the valve on its 
seat being equalized by equal exposure at top and bot- 
tom, it will be clear that the valve is fully balanced in 
all positions of stroke, and is, therefore, available for 
high pressures. 

The double admission of steam to the cylinder and 



PISTON VALVES AND BALANCED VALVES i8i 




>.Z2 ' LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

the double opening for exhaust of same are made clear 
in Figs. 85 and 87, which show the valve at point of 
admission and point of exhaust respectively. Refer- 
ring to Fig. 85, the valve is admitting steam to the 
cylinder port direct, and at the same time is admitting 
steam to the port (pocket port) in the balance plate 
and thence by way of passage A through the valve 
into the cylinder, thus securing double admission 
openings. Note direction of arrows. 

Referring to Fig. 87, the valve is opening for exhaust 
and the steam leaves the cylinder at the face of the 
valve at cylinder seat and also by way of passages E 
thro'gh the valve into the port (pocket port) in the 
balance plate, and out at the face of the valve, thus 
securing the double opening for exhaust, which has 
always been considered a feature much to be desired 
in the locomotive valve. Owing to the fact that the 
travel of the valve over its seat is equalized, it is pos- 
sible to so proportion the width of the valve seats that 
the valve travels to the edge of, or slightly over, the 
seat when the engine is worked at the shortest pos- 
sible cut-off, and the valve must, therefore, make a full 
stroke across the seat or "wipe the seat" at every 
revolution of the wheel, regardless of the cut-off; per- 
fectly straight wear of the valve seat is the result. 

In applying the valve to the engine it is important 
that the face of the balance plate, or upper valve seat, 
shall be in alignment with the cylinder seat in order to 
secure simultaneous action of the valve, at both faces, 
as previously explained; this is accotnplished in 
various ways, one, a very positive and easy method, 
being shown^ere. 

The height adjustment is J^-in. clearance for lift of 
valve or balance plate for relief of water from the 



PISTON VALVES AND BALANCED VALVES 183 




i84 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

« 

cylinder and to open direct communication from one 

side of the piston to the other for the free passage of 

air in drifting. In this connection, it should be 

observed that the balance plate will leave its seat on 

the valve while the valve remains on the valve seat, 

and that, while the balance plate is off its seat, direct 

communication from one cylinder port to the other is 

always maintained by reason of the ports AE through 

the valve; this affords the most perfect air relief for 

drifting. 

The packing rings remain stationary and are, there- 
fore, subject to practically no wear; they afford full 
automatic adjustment to position and for wear of valve 
faces and are free from danger of breakage or derange- 
ment. 

The Kichardson Balanced Valve, This form of bal- 
anced slide valve, together with the Allen-Richardson 
balanced slide valve, is manufactured by H. G. Ham- 
mett of Troy, New York, and is largely used on loco- 
motives. Figs. 88 and 89 represent transverse and 
longitudinal sections through the center of an ordinary 
locomotive steam chest fitted with the Richardson 
i^alve. Fig. 90 shows a plan of the valve, and Fig. 
gi is an elevation of one end of the packing strips and 
spring, the only alteration being the addition of the 
balance plate, PP, Fig. 88, and the substitution of a 
valve adapted to receive the packing strips S, S, S, S. 

It will be noticed in this instance that the balance 
plate is bolted to the cover of the steam chest, but 
these maybe cast in a single piece. The four sections 
of packing enclose a rectangular space, R, Fig. 90, 
which equals in its area the total amount of valve sur- 
face which is to be relieved of excess pressure, the 
packing strips preventing the steam from entering 



PISTON VALVES AND BALANCED VALVES iS^ 

this space, and the small hole X, communicating with 
the exhaust cavity in the valve, relieves space R from 
any possible accumulation of pressure. 

The four packing strips consist of two longer ones, 
which are simply rectangular pieces of cast iron, while 
the two shorter ones, Fig. 91, have gib-shaped ends to 
retain them in their proper position. Beneath each 
packing strip a light elliptic spring, shown in Fig. 91, 




Figure 88 



is placed which holds these strips in position against 
the balance plate when steam is shut off. 

In operation these different sections maintain a steam- 
tight contact, by a direct steam pressure, with the 
balance plate and with the inner surfaces of the 
grooves provided to receive them, the joint being 
secured by the abutting of the ends of the two longer 
sections against the inner surfaces of the gibbed sec- 
tions at the four corners. 

The Allen-Richardson Balanced Slide Valve. The 
Allen valve is designed to at least partly prevent the 
wire-drawing of the steam, when high speeds are 



i86 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



maintained with the valve cutting off early in the 
stroke. 

In the Allen valve, an additional passage for the 
inlet of steam is furnished, as will be clearly seen by 
referring to Figs. 92 and 93. These are transverse and 
longitudinal sections through the valve and steam 
ohest, and it will be noticed that, when the ste'am port 
is open one-half inch in the ordinary manner, the port 
of the cored passage is also open to a like extent on 
the other side of the valve; consequently the effective 




Figure 89 



area of the steam port is doubled, and is thus the actual 
equivalent of a single port with a one-inch opening. 

The wire-drawing incident to running at high speeds 
with the valve cutting off early in the stroke, is thus 
greatly diminished, with a resultant economy of steam 
and fuel. A reduction of wire-drawing carries with it 
a higher average pressure on the piston when working 
at a similar cut-off; consequently the usual average 
oresGure can be maintained with a shorter cut-off, 
resulting in an appreciable economy. While the un- 
balanced x\llen valve, therefore, secures a better and 
more economical distribution of steam, its use entails 
certain disadvantages. 



PISTON VALVES AND BALANCED VALVES 187 

On the face of a slide valve, the area of bearing sur- 
face is never sufficient to secure its wearing well under 
a heavy steam pressure; and this wearing surface is 
yet further reduced in the Allen valve, owing to its 
internal steam ports. This internal passage actually 
divides the valve into two parts, and the steam pres- 
sure, acting on the outer part, springs and bends its 
working face below that of the internal or exhaust port 
of the valve. The available wearing face is consequently 
reduced to a space about one-half as wide as the out- 



X-® R 



Figure 90 



Figure 91 



side lap of the valve, and this fully accounts for the 
rapid wearing of the unbalanced Allen valve, and for 
the trouble and expense of constantly refacing valves 
and seats, and the loss of the steam blown through 
leaky valves quite offsets the advantages gained by a 
reduction of wire-drawing. 

These manifest disadvantages are entirely overcome 
by a proper balancing of the valve, which secures all 
of the advantages of the Richardson device, plus an 
increased steam economy resulting from using the 
Allen ports. 

To secure the best possible results from the employ- 



i88 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERIING 



ment of the Allen balanced valve, its ports and bridges 
should exceed the full travel of the valve by at least 
one-eighth of an inch, and the radius of the link should 
always be as long as permissible to escape an excessive 
increase of lead when cutting off early in the stroke. 

The Young Valve and Gear. During the past four 
years there has been brought to the front a valve 
which, while not a balanced valve in the ordinary 
acceptance of the term, as applied to locomotives, 




Figure 92 



Nevertheless gives or appears to give as good a 
d'Stribution of the steam as either the balanced 
si -de valve or the piston valve, while at the same time 
its operation is accomplished with a minimum of fric- 
tion and strain on the valve gear. This is the Young 
valve and gear, the invention of Mr. O. VV. Young of 
Chicago. The results obtained by the practical use of 
this valve on one of the engines of the Chicago & 
Northwestern Railway, especially during the past 



PISTON VALVES AND BALANCED VALVES 189 

year, seem to warrant the conclusion that it has many 
meritorious features, and that a bright future lies 
before it. 

A general idea of the construction of the valves, and 
the wrist plate by which they are operated, may be 
iobtained by reference to Fig. 94, which is a sectional 
elevation showing the steam and exhaust ports, and a 
sectional view of the two valves, one for each end of 
the cylinder. The arrows clearly indicate the course 
of the steam in its passage into, and out of, the 
cylinder. 




Figure 93 



It is claimed for this system that irregularities in 
lead are corrected for the shorter points of cut-off, and 
the indicator diagrams shown in Figs. 96 and 97 cer- 
tainly show an excellent steam distribution for all 
points of cut-off. 

The author desires to say in this connection that he 
has seen the originals of these diagrams as taken from 
engine 1026 of the C. & N. W. Ry. and can vouch for 
their correctness. 

The following brief description of this valve is fur- 
nished bv the inventor: 



190 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 







DC 




m 


.<; 



z 




> 

< 
> 


Q W 

< 


> 






\ 




/ 6 






/ ^ '^ 


/ 


>^ 


\ a: ^ 




PISTON VALVES AND BALANCED VALVES 191 

The Young valve and gear is an adaptation of the 
Corh'ss principle to suit requirements in locomotive 
practice, and consists of two valves for each cylinder, 
operating alternately as inlet and outlet and driven by 
the Corliss wrist motion, used in connection with the 
Stephenson link. An original device is provided for 
correcting the irregularities in lead, and either a con- 
stant or a slightly increased steam lead for the shorter 
cut-offs can be obtained, and an excessive preadmis- 
sion of steam avoided. The exhaust lead, by this 
device, is caused to increase as the cut-off is shortened 
and permits an exhaust lap for long cut-offs, changing 
to exhaust clearance for a short cut-off, thus securing 
the maximum of power while starting (as shown by the 
straight back pressure line in the indicator cards) and 
sufficiently late compression to prevent the terminal 
pressure from exceeding the initial pressure even at 
very high speeds, and this is accomplished without the 
aid of by-pass or compression valves of any description. 

The valves consist of a plurality of cast iron strips 
encompassing the exhaust cavity and partitioning the 
live from exhaust steam, and are each free to move 
to" ds and from their seat independent of each other; 
each following its individual path of travel and 
adjusting itself to any irregularities in the seat over 
which it moves, thus reducing leakage to a lower 
amount than is usually accomplished. The valve body 
or carrier is journaled at each end and its weight sup- 
ported entirely clear of the valve seat, the only weight 
on the seat being that of the strips; the tendency, 
therefore, towards cutting, as compared with a heavy 
slide valve, is reduced to a very small percentage, and 
the necessity for liberal lubrication is obviated. The 
valve stems in their passage through the walls of the 



192 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

steam chest require no lubrication or packing. They 
will continue steam-tight and require no attention 
between shoppings in the way of taking up lost 
motion. Valve renewals are confined to the substitu- 
tion of one or more strips. 

The valve gear consists of the ordinary Stephenson 
link, eccentrics, and rocker-arm as far as the end of 
the valve stem, which is connected to the wrist plate. 

From the wrist plate extend short hinged connecting 
rods to crank arms on the two rotative valve spindles. 

The wrist plates are located between the cylinder 
saddles and the steam chests, and rotate on trunnioned 
bearings. 

Fig. 95 shows a general plan and elevation of this 
system. The device for correcting the lead is operated 
in the following simple manner: 

By reference to Fig. 95 it will be seen that a horizontal 
shaft extends across the back of the cylinder 
saddle, and that this shaft is fitted with two cranks 
that connect with the bearings of the wrist plates. 
From the center of this shaft a long connecting rod 
extends back to a short crank arm on the tumbling 
shaft. So that when the link is raised or lowere^ ^m 
the central position, the wrist plate is raised to regu- 
late the lead. Experiments with this valve show that 
the best results are obtained by allowing about }i in. 
more lead for the shorter cut-off. The valve chests 
are fitted with lo-in. bushings, within which the valves 
rotate. These bushings are made of soft cast iron, and 
the valves, as has already been explained, are fitted 
with cast iron packing strips. 

The clearance in the cylinder of the first locomotive 
equipped with this device was 3 per cent and in the 
second engine it was 6 per cent Experience thus far 



PIST >N VALVES AND BALANCED VALVES 193 




194 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



gained shows that 5 per cent would be the best 
iigure. 

Mr. Robert Quayle, superintendent of motive power 



Cord No 1 
fttwIutiomperMin Z^. 
Miles per /four 6. 
r/trotfle Opening % 
Cutoff ZZ. 
Initial Pressure /as. 
Bach Pressure / 
Mean fffectyye fres. 176. 




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Figure 96 



and machinery for the Chicago & Northwest .^rn Rail- 
way Company, has kindly furnished the author wirh 
the following information regarding the testing and 



PISTON VALVES AND BALANCED VALVES 195 



development of this interesting device on the North- 
western. 

"The Young valve and gear has been developed on 
the C. & N. W. Ry. under the direct supervision of 
Mr. O. W. 
Young. There 
are at present 
on the Chicago 
& Northwestern 
Railway two 
1 o c o m o t ive s 
equipped with 
the Young valve 
and gear, which 
is a system of 
rocking valves 
(two to each 
cylinder) which 
are operated by 
the usual eccen- 
trics and links 
of the Stephen- 
son motion. 
The construc- 
tion of the 
valves requires rA,jcordra/renr*hi/e 
an especial cyl- %^;!':^7a^' 
inder casting ^^^^^T^ 
and therefore it ^^''"'''^ 
cannot be used 
without a com- 
plete change. 



€artf/Vo. 


II. 


-1 


R.fiM. 


Zb9. 


._ -J 


M.P.H 


63. 


^\ y^J 


rhroff/e 


% 


X X / 


Cutoff 


^/i 


V \ ^ / 


//? 


56 


\ \^ ^^ / 


B.P 


z. 


X 2x1 / 


Pt.EP 


-M 


^xr^ ^^-^^ 


/.HP 


256 










CardNo 


/Z. " 




R.PM. 


.s/z. 




M-PH- 
T/irott/e 


75. = 




^\ ^ 


Cutoff 


S'/z\ 


\ \ ^ J 


I.P. 


/50- 


\ ^^.^-^'^ / 


BP 


6. 


X ^--^^^*<-->_ y 


M.E.P. 
/. tl.P. 


^9. 
31^. t: 


.-><r ^^><C 


Card No. 


/3. 


^ J 


R.P.M. 


336. 


r^\ yi 


M.PH 


63 


\ ^v / / 


rhrottfe 


Full. 


\ \ / / 


Cutoff 


^•/z 


\ X y / 


IP- 


ZOO. 


\ ^^-^^^ / 


BP- 


/4. 


X._— >^^^-"-^^ 


M.EP 


39. 
Z67. 


^S^^x:^ iX^ 


l.tl.P. 










Card /Vo 


/^. 




P. P.M. 


396. 


^-^ A 


M.PtI, 


95 


\\ y I 


fjit 


Futt 


vv / 


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M.£.P. 


37. 

300. 


. — ><c_::><-~^ 


IMP 





Card A/o. 



AS 



"^ .^ 



Figure 97 



The actual cost of these cylinders, including the 
valves and changes in the motion, should not exceed 



196 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

thirty per cent more than the cost of cylinders, valves, 
chests, etc., for a D or piston valved locomotive. If, 
however, these cylinders were made standard to a 
road, I do not think they would cost more than $150 
more per locomotive. 

In June, 1901, the first engine was equipped, and, 
like all first attempts, there were certain details shown 
ap which needed improvement. The general results 
with this engine justified a second trial, and in Septem- 
ber, 1903, a set of cylinders with the special valves 
and their motion were applied to a 20 x 26" Atlantic 
type (passenger) engine with 81" over the tires and 
91,000 lb. on the drivers. The experiments with this 
engine lasted some six or eight weeks, and in Novem- 
ber, 1903, the engine was put regularly into service on 
the Galena division. The engine has been a "tramp" 
up to a very recent date; has had all kinds of service, 
all kinds of engineers handling her, and practically 
continuous service. It has so far made approximately 
90,000 miles. The tires have not been turned, the 
eccentric straps have been closed once about ^V ^^' 
each, there is no pound in the boxes and the tool 
marks are still on the motion pins. These results are 
especially interesting to the motive power official, 
demonstrating as they do that the wear and tear on 
the machinery is so remarkably less than the engine 
with the D or piston valves. The engine is always 
ready for service, the roundhouse foreman reporting 
that for his part of it, five of this type would easily 
equal seven of the piston valve engines. There is one 
run between Chicago and Clinton, with usually ten 
hea^^y cars, on which this engine is the only one that 
can make the time. 

The train dispatchers know the value of this engine, 



PISTON VALVES AND BALANCED VALVES 197 

also, as they do not hesitate to rely on it to make up 
time or take an unusually heavy run. As a conse- 
quence the improvements shown by the indicator cards 
are nof entirely realized in actual performance records. 
In a series of comparisons made by the indicator the 
water rate per indicator horse-power was reduced from 
22.9 lb. to 19.3 lb. The indicator cards also show the 
cause for the slight wear on the machinery, as the 
cards are remarkably full, the expansion lines being 
clear and distinct at all points of cut-off. Most of 
the work in passenger service is done at less than 6 
in. cut-off. On account of the high and full cards it 
is evident that the crank effort is uniform and higher 
than a slide valved engine. Besides causing less wear 
on the machinery, this gives a more even torque when 
starting and the consequent less slipping. 

The engine is one which will bear thorough investi- 
gation. While our experiments have been made in 
passenger service, I consider that the performance in 
freight service will show even better results from both 
an operation and economical standpoint." 

It should not be inferred that the Young valves are 
designed for light throttle conditions only. These 
engines, as will be seen by reference to Figs. 96 and 
97, respond readily to a wide open throttle, and one 
diagram, No. 14, shown in Fig. 97, indicates a speed 
of 396 R. P. M. and 95 miles per hour, with full throt- 
tle and cutting off at four inches. 

Fig. 98 shows a general view of engine 1026 of the 
C. & N. W., which engine is equipped with this valve. 

Questions 

262. Are there any other types of valves used on 
locomotives, besides the D slide valve? 



198 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




PISTON VALVES AND BALANCED VAL\i:.S ir 

263. Mention a few of them. 

264. What is the principal objection to the D slide 
valve? 

265. Is the piston valve a perfectly balanced valve? 

266. What pressure tends to press the D valve 
against its seat? 

267. Is there any pressure to counteract this? 

268. What are the causes of friction in piston valves? 

269. Are all piston valves outside admission valves? 

270. Why are piston valves practically balanced? 

271. Why are piston valves made as long as possible? 

272. What controls the admission of steam to the 
ports of a piston valve engine? 

273. How is an outside admission piston valve set? 

274. How is an inside admission valve set? , 

275. What advantage results from using an inside 
admission piston valve? 

276. Name another advantage in inside admission. 

277. What is one of the first duties of an engineer 
taking charge of a piston valve engine? 

278. Why should he do this? 

279. Are all engines equipped with indirect valve 
gear? 

280. Repeat four simple rules for the guidance of an 
engineer in the study of valve gear. 

281. Mention four possible combinations that may 
have to be dealt with. 

282. In the first two of these, what are the positions 
of the eccentrics with relation to the crank pin? 

283. What time would the hands of your watch indi- 
cate to represent this setting? 

284. What would be the positions of the eccentrics 
relative to the crank pin in the third and fourth com- 
binations? 



200 LOCO:\IOTIYE ENGINEERING 

285. What time would your watch indicate in order 
to correspond with this setting? 

286. What is a good rule to remember in setting pis 
ton valves? 

287. What type of piston valve does the American 
Balance Valve Co. manufacture? 

288. Describe in general terms the construction of 
this valve. 

289. What force expands the packing rings of this 
valve? 

290. What prevents excessive expansion of these 
rings? 

291. What is a common defect of snap ring piston 
valves? 

/292. How may the valve cage be worn unevenly? 

293. What should a piston valve do in order to give 
efficient service? 

294. What type of piston valve appears to be the 
favorite with builders? 

295. Mention another advantage possessed by the 
piston valve over other forms of slide valves. 

296. What does the term balanced valve include in 
its definition? 

297. Have there been very many types of balanced 
valves tested on locomotives? 

298. By whom is the Jack Wilson high pressure 
valve manufactured? 

299. Give a short description of this valve. 

300. Is it single acting or double acting? 

301. What is the function of the balance plate? 

302. What is the object of the pressure plate? 

303. Is this valve balanced at all points of its 
travel? 

304. What advantage is gained by having the valve 



PISTON VALVES AND BALANCED VALVES 201 

make a full stroke across the seat at every revolu- 
tion? 

305. Describe the Allen-Richardson balanced valve. 

306. How is the balance plate of the Richardson 
valve secured in place? 

307. How is a steam-tight contact maintained 
between the upper surface of the valve ana the bal- 
ance plate? 

308. How are these packing strips held in position? 

309. Does the unbalanced Allen valve wear well? 

310. What is the object of the internal passage in 
the Allen valve? 

311. In what respect does the Young valve differ 
from the majority of valves as applied to locomotives? 

312. What is claimed for this valve with regard to 
lead? 

313. Describe in general terms the Young valve and 
gear. 

314. Where are the wrist plates located in this 
system? 

315. Describe the device for automatically regulat- 
ing the lead. 

316. What is the diameter of the bushing within 
which the valve rotates? 



CHAPTER VII 

THE INDICATOR 

The Indicator. One of the greatest aids to the eco- 
nomical operation of the steam engine is the indicator, 
and it is the privilege of every engineer to have at 
least an elementary, if not a thorough knowledge of 
its principles and working. The time devoted to the 
study of the indicator, and in its application to the 
engine, is time well spent, and the end will well 
repay the student of steam engineering. 

Inventor. The indicator was invented and first 
applied to the steam engine by James Watt, whose 
restless genius was not satisfied with a mere outside 
view of his engine as it was running, but he desired to 
know more about the action of the steam in the cylin- 
der, its pressure at different portions of the stroke, the 
laws governing its expansion after being out off, etc. 
Watt's indicator, although crude in its design and 
construction, contained embodied within it all of the 
orinciples of the modern instrument. 

Principles. These principles are: 

First. The pressure of the steam in the engine 
cylinder throughout an entire revolution, against a 
small piston in the cylinder of the indicator, which in 
turn is controlled or resisted in its movement by a 
spring of known tension, so as to confine the stroke 
of the indicator piston within a certain small limit. 

Second. The stroke of the indicator piston is com- 
municated by a multiplying mechanism of levers and 
parallel motion to a pencil moving in a straight line; 
the distance through which the pencil moves being 



THE INDICATOR 



203 



governed by the pressure in the engine cylinder and 
the tension of the spring. 

Third. By the intervention of a reducing mechan- 
ism and a strong cord, the motion of the piston of the 




Sectional View Crosby Indicator 



engine throughout an entire revolution is communi- 
cated to a small drum attached to and forming a part 
of the indicator. The movement of the drum is 
rotative and in a direction at right angles to the move- 
ment of the pencil. The forward stroke of the engine 



204 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



piston causes the drum to rotate through part of a 
revolution and at the same time a clock spring con- 
nected within the drum is wound up. On the return 
stroke the motion of the drum is reversed, and the ten- 
sion of the spring returns the drum to its original posi- 
tion and also keeps the cord taut. 

To the outside of the drum a piece of blank paper 
of suitable size is attached and held in place by two 
clips. Upon this paper the pencil in its motion up 
and down traces a complete diagram 
of the pressures and other interesting 
events transpiring within the engine 
cylinder during the revolution of the 
engine. In fact, the diagram traced 
upon the paper is the compound result 
of two concurrent movements. First, 
that of the pencil, caused by the pres- 
sure of the steam against the indicator 
piston; second, that of the paper drum, 
caused by, and coincident with, the 
motion of the engine piston. The 
upper end of the indicator cylinder is 
always open to the atmosphere, the 
steam acting only upon the under side 
of the small piston, and when the cock 
connecting the cylinders of the engine and indicator 
is closed, both ends of the indicator cylinder are open 
to atmospheric pressure, and the pencil then stands at 
its neutral position. If now the pencil is held against 
the paper and the drum rotated either by hand or by 
connecting it with the cord, a horizontal line will be 
traced. This line is called the atmospheric line, 
meaning the line of atmospheric pressure, and it is a 
very important factor in the study of the diagram. 




Crosby 

Indicator 

Spring 



THE INDICATOR 



205 



On a locomotive, the pencil, in tracing the diagram, 
will not, or at least should not, fall below the atmos- 




Improved Tabor Indicator with Outside Connected Spring 
AsHCROFT Mfg. Co., N. Y. 



pheric line at any point, but will on the return stroke 
trace a line called the line of back pressure. 

As before stated, the length of stroke of the indi- 



2o6 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

cator piston, and the pencil movement as vvell» is con- 
trolled by a spiral steel spring which acts in resistance 
to the pressure of the steam. These springs are made 
of different tensions, in order to be suitable to different 
steam pressures and speeds, and are numbered 20, 40, 
60, etc., the number meaning that a pressure per 
square inch in the engine cylinder corresponding to 
the number on the spring will cause a vertical move- 
ment of the pencil through a distance of one inch. 
Thus, if a number 20 spring is used and the pressure 
in the cylinder at the commencement of the stroke is 
20 lbs. per square inch, the pencil will be raised one 
inch, or if the pressure is 30 lbs., the pencil will travel 
1% in., and if there is a vacuum of 20 in. in the con- 
denser, the pencil will drop % in. below the atmos- 
pheric line, for the reason that 20 in. of vacuum 
corresponds to a pressure of about 10 lbs. less than 
atmospheric pressure or an absolute pressure of about 
4 lbs. If a 60 spring is used, a pressure of 60 lbs. in 
the engine cylinder will be required to raise the pencil 
one inch, or 90 lbs. to raise it 1% in. 

The Ashcroft Manufacturing Co. of New York, 
makers of the well known Tabor indicator, have 
recently introduced a new feature in indicator work by 
connecting the spring on top of the cylinder and in 
plain view of the operator. This arrangement removes 
the spring from the influence of direct contact with 
the steam, and it is subject only to the temperature of 
the surrounding atmosphere. It is claimed that as a 
result of this the accu-racy of the spring is insured and 
that no allowance need be made in its manufacture 
for expansion caused by the high temperature to which 
it i^ subject when located within the cylinder. 
Another good feature of this design is, that the spring 



THE INDICATOR 



20: 



can be easily removed without disconnecting any one 
part of the instrument in case it is desired to change 
springs. A cut of the 
improved instrument is 
herewith presented. 

Fig. 99 is a sectional 
view of the American 
Thompson improved indi- 
cator. Fig. 100 shows the 
spring. Fig. loi is a 
three-way cock for attach- 
ing the indicator to the 
cylinder. 

Reducing Mechanism. 
Probably the only practi- 
cally universal mechanism 

for reducing 

the motion 





Figure 99 



Figure 100 
drilled and 



of the crosshead is the reducing wheel, a 
device in which, by the employment of 
gears and pulleys of different diameters, 
the motion is reduced to within the com- 
pass of the drum, and the device is 
applicable to almost any make of engine, 
whether of high or low speed. Some 
makers of indicators attach the reducing 
wheel directly to the indicator, thus pro- 
ducing a neat and very convenient ar- 
rangement. Fig. 102 shows the indicator 
complete, with reducing wheel attached. 
Attaching the Indicator. The cylinders 
of most engines at the present time are 
tapped for indicator connections before 



they leave the shop, which is eminently {>roper, as no 



2o8 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

engine builder, or purchaser either, should be satisfied 
with the performance of a new engine until after it has 
been accurately tested and adjusted with the indicator. 
The main requirements in these connections are that 
the holes shall not be drilled near the bottom of the 
cylinder where water is likely to find its way into the 
pipes, neither should they be in a location where the 
inrush of steam from the ports will strike them 
directly, nor where the edge of the piston is liable to 



Figure 101 

partly cover them when at its extreme travel. An 
engineer before he undertakes to indicate an engine 
should satisfy himself that all these requirements are 
fulfilled. Otherwise he is not likely to obtain a true 
diagram. The cock supplied with the indicator is 
threaded for one-half inch pipe, and unless the engine 
has a very long stroke it is the practice to bring the 
two end connections together at the side or top of the 
cylinder and at or near the middle of its length, where 
they can be connected to a three-way cock. The pipe 



THE INDICATOR 



sog 



connections should be as short and as free from elbows 
as possible, in order that the steam may strike the indi- 
cator piston as nearly as possible at the same moment 
that it acts upon the engine piston. 

These pipes should always be thoroughly blown out 
and cleaned, by allowing the steam to blow through 




Figure 102 



the open three-way cock during several revolutions ot 
the engine, before connecting the indicator. If this 
is not done there is a moral certainty that dirt and grit 
will get into the cylinder of the indicator and cause it 
to work badly, and give diagrams that are misleading. 
As before stated, the height of the diagram depend-: 



2IO LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

upon the tension or number of the spring. It is a 
convenient practice to select a spring numbered one- 
half of the boiler pressure, as, for instance, suppose 
gauge pressure or boiler pressure is 200 lbs. per sq. 
in., then a 100 spring would give a'diagram 2 inches in 
height, which is a convenient height. As to the 
length of the diagram, this is regulated by adjustment 
of the cord in its travel, by means of the reducing 
wheel. Any length of diagram up to four inches may 
be obtained, but two and a half to three inches is a 
very good length for analysis. 

Care of the Instrument. The indicator should be 
cleaned and oiled both before and after using. The 
best material for wiping it is a clean piece of old soft 
muslin of fine texture, as there is not so much liability 
of lint sticking to, or getting into, the small joints. 

Good clock oil should be used for the joints and 
springs, and just before taking diagrams it is a good 
practice to rub a small portion of cylinder oil on the 
piston and on the inside of the cylinder, but when 
about to put the instrument away, these should be 
cleaned and oiled with clock oil also. None but the 
best cord should be used for connecting the reducing 
wheel with the crosshead, as a cord that is liable to 
stretch will cause trouble. Suitable cord, and also 
blank diagrams, can generally be obtained from firms 
engaged in manufacturing and selling indicators. 
After the indicator has been screwed on to the cock 
connecting with the pipe, the cord must be adjusted to 
the proper length before hooking it on to the drum. 
This must be done while the engine is running, by tak- 
ing hold of the loop on the cord connected with the 
crosshead with one hand, and with the other hand 
grasp the hook on the cord attached to the reducing 



THE INDICATOR 211 

wheel; then, by holding the two ends near each other 
during a revolution or two of the crank pin, it will be 
seen whether the long cord needs to be lengthened or 
shortened. Care should be exercised in placing the 
paper on the drum to see that it is stretched tight and 
firmly held by the clips. The pencil point, having 
been first sharpened by rubbing it on a piece of fine 
emery cloth or sandpaper, should be adjusted by 
means of the pencil stop with which all indicators 
should be provided, so that it will have just sufficient 
bearing against the paper to make a fine, plain mark. 
If the pencil bears too hard on the paper it will cause 
unnecessary friction and the diagram will be distorted. 
The best method of ascertaining this fact and also 
whether the travel of the drum is equally divided 
between the stops, is to place a blank diagram on the 
drum, connect the cord and while the engine makes a 
revolution hold the pencil against the paper. Then 
unhook the cord, remove the paper and if the travel 
of the drum is not divided correctly it can be changed- 
Having thus arranged all the preliminary details, 
place a fresh blank on the drum, being careful to keep 
the pencil out of contact with it, connect the cord, 
open the cock admitting steam to the indicator, and 
after the pencil has made a few strokes to allow the 
cylinder to become warmed up, then gently swing it 
around to the paper drum and hold it there while the 
engine makes a complete revolution. Then move the 
pencil clear of the paper, close the cock and unhook 
the cord. Now trace the atmospheric line by holding 
the pencil against the paper while the drum is 
revolved by hand. This method of tracing the atmos- 
pheric line is preferable to that of tracing it imme- 
diately after clos^'ng the cock and while the drum is 



212 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

still being moved by the engine, for the reason that 
there is not so much liability of getting the atmos- 
pheric line too high owing to the presence of a slight 
pressure of steam remaining under the indicator piston 
for a second or two just after closing the cock; also the 
line drawn by hand will be longer than one drawn 
while the drum is moved by the motion of the engine 
and will therefore be more readily distinguished from 
the line of back pressure. 

Having secured a truthful diagram, it now remains 
to take as many as are desired, and they should follow 
each other as rapidly as possible, in order that each 
pair of diagrams may be taken under the same condi- 
tions of initial pressure, cut-off, etc. In order to get 
accurate results, the operator should have an assistant 
posted in the cab, whose duty will be to watch the 
steam gauge, and see that other conditions are the 
same at least during the time a pair of cards is being 
taken. As soon as the diagrams are taken, the follow- 
ing data should be noted upon them: ihe end of 
cylinder, whether head end, or crank end, boiler pres- 
sure, revolutions per minute, miles per hour, throttle 
opening, cut-off. Other data, such as mean effective 
pressure, back pressure, indicated horse-power, and 
steam per indicated horse-power per hour, may be 
ascertained by an analysis of the diagrams, and should 
also be noted upon the back of each pair of diagrams 
after they have been found by calculation. The 
diagrams should be numbered, also, as they are 
taken. 

The taking of indicator diagrams from locomotives 
has of late years been greatly facilitated by the use of 
electrical apparatus whereby any number of diagrams 
xmy be taken simultaneously. This is certainly a 



THE INDICATOR 213 

great improvement over the old method of hand 
manipulation, especially for high speed engines. 

In order to facilitate the study and analysis of indi- 
cator diagrams, the following definitions of technical 
terms, some of which have already been explained in 
another part of this book, are here given. 

Absolute Pressure. Pressure reckoned from a perfect 
vacuum. It equals the boiler pressure plus the atmos- 
pheric pressure. 

Boiler Pressure or Gauge Pressure. Pressure above 
the atmospheric pressure as shown by the steam 
gauge. 

hiitial Pressure. Pressure in the cylinder at the 
beginning of the stroke. 

Terminal Pressure {T. P). The pressure that would 
exist in the cylinder at the end of the stroke provided 
the exhaust valve did not open until the stroke was 
entirely completed. It may be graphically illustrated 
on the diagram by extendmg the expansion curve by 
hand to the end of the stroke. It is found theoretically 
by dividing the pressure at point of cut-off by the 
ratio of expansion. Thus, absolute pressure at cut- 
off = 100 lbs., ratio of expansion = 5; then 100 -j- 5 = 20 
lbs., absolute terminal pressure. 

Mea?i Effective Pressure (M. E. P.). The average 
pressure acting upon the piston throughout the stroke 
minus the back pressure. 

Back Pressure. Pressure which tends to retard the 
forward stroke of the piston. Indicated on the dia- 
gram from a non-condensing engine by the height of 
the back pressure line above the atmospheric line. In 
a condensing engine the degree of back pressure is 
shown bv the height of the back pressure line above 
an imaginary line representing the pressure in the 



214 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

condenser corresponding to the degree of vacuum in 
inches, as shown by the vacuum gauge. 

Total or Absolute Back Pressure, in either a condens- 
ing or non-condensing engine, is that indicated on the 
diagram by the height of the line of back pressure 
above the line of perfect vacuum. 

Ratio of Expansioiu The proportion that the volume 
of steam in the cylinder at point of release bears to 
the volume at cut-off. Thus, if the point of cut-off is 
at one-fifth of the stroke, and release does not take 
place until the end of the stroke, the ratio of expan- 
sion, or in other words, the number of expansions, is 
5. When the T. P. is known the ratio of expansion 
may be found by dividing the initial pressure by the 
T. P. 

Wire -Drawing. When through insufficiency of 
valve opening, or contracted ports, the steam is pre- 
vented from following up the piston at full initial 
pressure until the point of cut-off is reached, it is said 
to be wire-drawn. It is indicated on the diagram by a 
gradual inclination downwards of the steam line from 
the admission line to the point of cut-off. Too small 
a steam pipe from boiler to engine will also cause wire- 
drawing and fall of pressure. 

Condenser Pressure may be defined as the pressure 
existing in the condenser of an engine, caused by the 
lack of a perfect vacuum; as, for instance, with a 
vacuum of 25 in. there will still remain the pressure 
due to the 5 in. which is lacking. This will be about 
2.5 lbs. 

Vacuum. That condition existing within a closed 
vessel from which all matter, including air, has been 
expelled. It is measured by inches in a column of 
mercury contained within a glass tube a little over 30 



THE INDICATOR 215 

in. in height, having its lower end open and immersed 
in a small open vessel filled with mercury. The upper 
end of the glass tube is connected with the vessel in 
which the vacuum is to be produced. When no 
vacuum exists the mercury will leave the tube and fill 
the lower vessel. When a vacuum is maintained in 
the condenser, or other vessel, the mercury will rise 
in the glass tube to a height corresponding to the 
degree of vacuum. If the mercury rises to the height 
of 30 in. it indicates a perfect vacuum, which means 
the absence of all pressure within the vessel, but this 
condition is never realized in practice; the nearest 
approach to it being about 28 in. 

For purposes of convenience the mercurial vacuum 
gauge is not generally used, it having been replaced 
by the Bourdon spring gauge, although the mercury 
gauge is used for testing. 

The vacuum in a condenser is generally maintained 
by an air pump, although it can be produced and 
maintained by the mere condensation of the steam as 
it enters the condenser by allowing a spray of cold 
water to strike it. The steam when it first enters the 
condenser drives out the air and the vessel is filled 
with steam, which, when condensed, occupies about 
1,600 times less space than it did before being con- 
densed; hence a partial vacuum is produced. 

While the vacuum in a condenser cannot be consid 
ered as power at all, yet it occupies the anomalous 
position of increasing, by its presence, the capacity of 
the engine for doing work. This is owing to the fact 
that the atmospheric pressure or resistance which is 
always ahead of the piston in a non-condensing engine 
is, in the case of a condensing engine, removed to a 
degree corresponding to the height of the vacuum, 



2i6 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

thus making available just so much more of the pres- 
sure behind the piston. Thus, if the average steam 
pressure throughout the stroke is 30 lbs. and there is a 
vacuum of 26 in. maintained in the condenser, there 
will be 13 lbs. of resistance per square inch removed 
from in front of the piston, thus making available 
30+ 13 = 43 lbs. pressure per square inch. 

Absolute Zero has been fixed by calculation at 461.2'' 
below the zero of the Fahrenheit scale. 

Piston Displacement. The space or volume swept 
through by the piston in a single stroke. Found by 
multiplying the area of piston by length of stroke. 

Piston Clearance. The distance between the piston 
and cylinder head when the piston is at the end of the 
stroke. 

Steam Clearance^ Ordi?iarily Termed Clearance. The 
space between the piston at the end of the stroke and 
the valve face. It is reckoned in per cent of the total 
piston displacement. 

Horse-Power {H. P.). 33,000 pounds raised one foot 
high in one minute of time. 

hidicated Horse-Power (/. H. P.). The horse-power 
as shown by the indicator diagram. It is found as fol- 
lows: 

Area of piston in square inches x M. E. P. x piston 
speed in feet -^ 33,000. 

Piston Speed. The distance in feet traveled by the 
piston in one minute. It is the product of twice the 
length of stroke expressed in feet multiplied by the 
number of revolutions per minute. 

R. P. M. Revolutions per minute. 

Net Horse- Power. I. H. P. minus the friction of the 
engine. 

Compression. The action of the piston as it nears 



THE INDICATOR 217 

the end of the stroke, in reducing the volume and 
raising the pressure of the steam retained in the cylin- 
der ahead of the piston by the closing of the exhaust 
valve. 

Boyle's or Mariotte's Law of Expanding Gases. "The 
pressure of a gas at a constant temperature varies 
inversely as the space it occupies." Thus, if a given 
volume of gas is confined at a pressure of 50 lbs. per 
square inch and it is allowed to expand to twice its 
volume, the pressure will fall to 25 lbs. per square inch. 

Adiahatic Qcrve. A curve representing the expan- 
sion of a gas which loses no heat while expanding. 
Sometimes called the curve of no transmission. 

Isothermal Curve. A curve representing the expan- 
sion of a gas having a constant temperature but par- 
tially influenced by moisture, causing a variation in 
pressure according to the degree of moisture or satura- 
tion. It is also called the theoretical expansion curve. 

Expansion Curve. The curve traced upon the dia- 
gram by the indicator pencil, showing the actual 
expansion of the steam in the cylinder. 

First Law of Thermody?iamics. Heat and mechanical 
energy are mutually convertible. 

Power. The rate of doing work, or the number of 
foot-pounds exerted in a given time. 

JJjiitofWork. The foot-pound, or the raising of one 
pound weight one foot high. 

First Law of Motion. All bodies continue either in 
a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line, 
except in so far as they may be compelled by im- 
pressed forces to change that state. 

Work. Mechanical force or pressure cannot be con- 
sidered as work unless it is exerted upon a body and 
<;auses that body to move through space. The product 



2i8 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

of the pressure multiplied by the distance passed 
through and the time thus occupied is work. 

Momentum. Force possessed by bodies in motion, 
or the product of mass and density. 

Dyiiamics. The science of moving powers or of mat- 
ter in motion, or of the motion of bodies that mutually 
act upon each other. 

Force. That which alters the motion of a body, or 
puts in motion a body that was at rest. 

Maximum Theoretical Duty of Steam is the product of 
the mechanical equivalent of heat, viz., 778 ft. lbs., 
multiplied by the total heat units in a pound of steam. 
Thus, in one pound of steam at 212° reckoned from 
32° the total heat equals 1,146.6 heat units. Then 
778 X 1,146.6 equals 892,054.8 ft. lbs. = maximum duty. 

Steam Efficiency may be expressed as follows: 

Heat converted into useful work , . -^ 

TF 5 — i and maximum eifi- 

Jrleat expended 

ciency can only be attained by using steam at as high 
an initial pressure as is consistent with safety and at 
as large a ratio of expansion as possible. The per- 
centage of efficiency of steam used at atmospheric 
pressure in a non-expansive engine is very low; as, for 
instance, the heat expended in the evaporation of one 
pound of water at 32° into steam at atmospheric pres- 
sure = 1,146.6 heat units, and the volume of steam so 
generated = 26.36 cu. ft. 

One cubic foot of steam at 212° contains energy 
equal to 144 x 14.7 = 2,116.8 ft. lbs., and 26.36 cu. ft. = 
2,116.8 X 26.36 = 55,798.84 ft. lbs., which divided by the 
mechanical equivalent of heat, viz., 778 ft. lbs. = 71.72 
heat units, available for useful work. The per cent of 

71 72 X 100 
efficiency, therefore, is^— -'^ — -^-^~ = 6.28 per cent. But 
^ 1,146.6 ^ 



THE INDICATOR 219 

suppose the initial pressure to have been 200 lbs. abso- 
lute, and that the steam is allowed to expand to thirty 
times its original volume. The heat expended in 
evaporating a pound of water at 32" into steam at 200 
lbs. .absolute pressure = i, 198.3 heat units, and the 
volume of steam so . generated = 2.27 cu. ft. The 
average pressure during expansion would be 29.34 lbs. 
per square inch and the volume when expanded thirty 
times would equal 2.27 x 30 = 68. 1 cu. ft. 

One cubic foot of steam at 29.34 lbs. pressure equals 
144 X 29.34 = 4,224.96 ft. lbs., and 68. i cu. ft. will equal 
4,224.96x68.1=287,719.7 ft. lbs. of energy, which 
divided by the equivalent, 778, equals 370.2 heat units, 

11 ^ c en ' -111 370-2 X 100 o 

and the per cent of efficiency will be — = 30.8 

^ 1,198-3 

per cent. 

Rjigine Efficiency. If the engine is considered merely 
as a machine for converting into useful work the heat 
energy in the steam regardless of the cost of fuel, its 
efficiency may be expressed as follows: 

Heat converted into useful work 
Total heat received in the steam 

Example. Assume an engine to be receiving steam 
at 95 lbs. absolute pressure, that the consumption of 
dry steam per horse-power per hour equals 20 lbs., that 
the friction of the engine amounts to 15 per cent, and 
that the temperature of the feed water is raised from 
60° to 170° by utilizing a portion of the exhaust. 

In a pound of steam at 95 lbs. absolute there are 
1,180.7 heat units, and in a pound of water at 170° 
there are 138.6 units of heat, but 28.01 of these heat 
units were in the water at its initial temperature of 
60°. Therefore the total heat added to the water by 
the exhaust steam equals 138.6-28.01 = 110.59 heat 



220 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

units, and the total heat in each pound of steam to be 
charged up to the engine is 1,180.7 — 110.59 = 1,070.11, 
and the total for each horse-power developed per hour 
will be 1,070.11 X 20 = 21,402.2 heat units. 

A horse-power equals 33,000 ft. lbs. per minute, or 
sixty times 33,000= 1,980,000 ft. lbs. per hour. From 
this must be deducted 15 per cent for friction of the 
engine, leaving 1,683,000 ft. lbs. for useful work. 
Dividing this by the equivalent, viz., 778 ft. lbs., 
gives 2,163.2 heat units as the heat converted into one 
horse-power of work in one hour, and the percentage 

c rn ' r ., • -il L 2,l63.2 X 100 

of efficiency of the engine will be = lo. I 

^ ^ 21,402.2 

per cent. 

Efficiency of the Plant as a Whole includes boiler and 
engine efficiency and is to be figured upon the basis of 
Heat converted into useful work 
Calorific or heat value of fuel 

Horse-Power Constatit oi an engine is found by multi- 
plying the area of the piston in square inches by the 
speed of the piston in feet per minute and dividing 
the product by 33,000. It is the power the engine 
would develop with one pound mean effective pres- 
sure. To find the horse-power of the engine, multiply 
the M. E. P. of the diagram by this constant. 

Logarithms. A series of numbers having a certain 
relation to the series of natural numbers, by means of 
which many arithmetical operations are made com- 
paratively easy. The nature of the relation will be 
understood by considering two simple series, such as 
the following, one proceeding from unity in geomet- 
rical progression and the other from o in arithmetical 
progression 

Geom. series, i, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, etc. 



THE INDICATOR 221 

Arith. series, o, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, etc. 

Here the ratio of the geometrical series is 2 and 
any term in the arithmetical series expresses how often 
2 has been multiplied into i to produce the correspond- 
ing term of the geometrical series. Thus, in proceed- 
ing from I to 32 there have been 5 steps or multipli- 
cations by the ratio 2; in other words, the ratio of 32 
to I is compounded 5 times of the ratio of 2 to i. The 
above is the basic principle upon which common 
logarithms are computed. 

Hyperbolic LogaritJims. Used in figuring the M. E. P. 
of a diagram from the ratio of expansion and the 
initial pressure. Thus, hyperbolic logarithm of ratio 
of expansion + I multiplied by absolute initial pressure 
and divided by ratio of expansion = mean forward 
pressure. From this deduct total back pressure and 
the remainder will be mean effective pressure. The 
hyperbolic logarithm is found by multiplying the com- 
mon logarithm by the constant 2.302585. Table 14 
gives the hyperbolic logarithms of numbers usually 
required in calculations of the above nature. 

Steam Consumption per Horse-Power per Hour, The 
weight in pounds of steam exhausted into the atmos- 
phere or into the condenser in one hour divided by 
the horse-power developed. It is determined from the 
diagram by selecting a point in the expansion curve 
just previous to the opening of the exhaust valve and 
measuring the absolute pressure at that point. Then 
the piston displacement up to the point selected, plus 
the clearance space, expressed in cubic feet, will give 
the volume of steam in the cylinder, which multiplied 
by the weight per cubic foot of steam at the pressure 
as measured will give the weight of steam consumed 
during one stroke. From this should be deducted the 



322 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



Table 14 
Hyperbolic Logarithms. 



No. 


Log. 


No. 


Log. 


No. 


Log. 


No. 


Log. 


No. 


Log. 


1. 01 


0.0099 


3.00 


1.0986 


5.00 


11.6094 


7.00 


1.9459 


9.00 


2.1972 


i«05 


0.0487 


3.05 


I.I151 


5.05 


I. 6194 


7.05 


1.9530 


9.05 


2.2028 


1. 10 


0.0953 


3.10 


I.1341 


5.10 


I.62Q2 


7.10 


1.9600 


9.10 


2.20S3 


1. 15 


0.1397 


3.15 


I. 1474 


5.15 


I . 6390 


7.15 


I. 9671 


9.15 


2.2137 


1.20 


0.1823 


3.20 


I.1631 


5.20 


1.6486 


7.20 


1.9740 


9.20 


2.2192 


1.25 


0.2231 


3.25 


I. 1786 


5.25 


I.65S2 


7-25 


I. 9810 


9.25 


2 . 2246 


1.30 


0.2623 


3.30 


I. 1939 


5.30 


1.6677 


7.30 


1.9879 


9.30 


2.2310 


1.35 


0.3001 


3.35 


1.2090 


5.35 


I. 6771 


7.35 


1.9947 


9.35 


2.2354 


1.40 


0.3364 


3.40 


1.2238 


5.40 


1.6864 


7.40 


2.0015 


9.40 


2.2407 


1.45 


0.3715 


3.45 


1.2384 


5.45 


1.6956 


7.45 


2.0018 


9-45 


2.2460 


1.50 


0.4054 


3.50 


1.2527 


5.50 


1.7047 


7.50 


2.0149 


9 -50 


2.2513 


1.55 


0.4382 


3.55 


1.2669 


5.55 


I. 7138 


7.55 


2.0215 


9.55 


2.2565 


1.60 


0.4700 


3.60 


1.2809 


5.60 


1.7228 


7.60 


2.0281 


9.60 


2.2618 


1.65 


0.5007 


3.65 


1.2947 


5.65 


I. 7316 


7.65 


2.0347 


9-65 


2 . 2670 


1.70 


0.5306 


3.70 


1.3083 


5.70 


1.7405 


7.70 


2.0412 


9.70 


2.2721 


1.75 


0.5596 


3.75 


I. 3217 


5.75 


X.749I 


7.75 


2.0477 


9-75 


2.2773 


1.80 


0.5877 


3.80 


1.3350 


5.80 


1.7578 


7.80 


2.0541 


9.80 


2.2824 


1.85 


0.6151 


3.85 


1.3480 


5.85 


1.7664 


7.85 


2 . 0605 


9-85 


2.2875 


1.90 


0.641S 


3.90 


1. 3610 


5.90 


1.7750 


7.90 


2.0668 


9.90 


2.2925 


1.95 


0.6678 


3-95 


1.3737 


5.95 


1.7834 


7.95 


2.0731 


9-95 


2.2976 


2.00 


0.6931 


4.00 


1.3863 


6.00 


I. 7918 


8.00 


2.0794 


10.00 


2.3026 


2.05 


0.7178 


4.05 


1.3987 


6.05 


1.8000 


8.05 


2.0857 


10,25 


2.3273 


2.10 


0.7419 


4.10 


I. 4010 


6. 10 


1.8083 


8.10 


2.0918 


10.50 


2.3514 


2.15 


0.7654 


4.15 


I. 4231 


6.15 


I. 8 164 


8.15 


2.0988 


10.75 


2.3749 


2.20 


0.7885 


4.20 


I. 4351 


6.20 


1.8245 


8.20 


2.IO4I 


11.00 


2.3979 


2.25 


o.8no 


4.25 


I . 4469 


6.25 


1.8326 


8.25 


2.II02 


12.00 


2 . 4849 


2.30 


0.8329 


4.30 


1.4586 


6.30 


I . 8405 


8.30 


2.I162 


13.00 


2.5626 


2.35 


0.8544 


4.35 


I. 4701 


6.35 


1.8484 


8.35 


2.1222 


14.00 


2.6390 


2.40 


0.8755 


4.40 


1. 4816 


6.40 


1.8563 


8.40 


2.1282 


15.00 


2.7103 


2.45 


0.8961 


4.45 


1.4929 


6.45 


I . 8640 


8.45 


2.1342 


16.00 


2.7751 


2.50 


0.9163 


4.50 


I . 5040 


6.50 


I. 8718 


8.50 


2 . 1400 


17.00 


2.8332 


2.55 


0.9361 


4.55 


1.5151 


6.55 


1.8795 


8.55 


2.1459 


18.00 


2.8903 


2.60 


0.9555 


4.60 


1.5260 


6.60 


1.8870 


8.60 


2.I518 


19.00 


2 . 9444 


2.65 


0.9746 


4.65 


1.5369 


6.65 


•1.8946 


8.65 


2.1576 


20.00 


2.9957 


2.70 


0.9932 


4.70 


1.5475 


6.70 


1. 9021 


8.70 


2.1633 


21.00 


3.0445 


2.75 


1.0116 


4.75 


I. 5581 


6.7s 


1.9095 


8.75 


2.1690 


22.00 


3.0910 


2.80 


1 .0296 


4.80 


1.5686 


6.80 


I. 9169 


8.80 


2.1747 


23.00 


3.0355 


2.85 


1.0473 


4.85 


1.5790 


6.85 


1.9242 


8.85 


2.1804 


24.00 


3.1780 


2.90 


1.0647 


4.90 


1.5892 


6.90 


I. 9315 


8,90 


2.1860 


25.00 


3.2189 


2.95 


I. 0818 


4.95 


1.5994 


6.95 


1.9387 


8.95 


2.I916 


30.00 


3.3782 



THE INDICATOR 223 

steam saved by compression as shown by the diagram, 
in order to get a true measure of the economy of the 
engine. Having thus determined the weight of steam 
consumed for one stroke, multiply it by twice the 
number of strokes per minute and by 60, which will 
give the total weight consumed per hour. This 
divided by the horse-power will give the rate per horse- 
power per hour. 

Cyli?ider Cojidensation and Re evaporation. When the 
exhaust valve opens to permit the exit of the steam 
there is a perceptible cooling of the walls of the cylin- 
der, especially in condensing engines when a high 
vacuum is maintained. This results in more or less 
condensation of the live steam admitted by the open- 
ing of the steam valve; but if the exhaust valve is 
caused to close at the proper time so as to retain a 
portion of the steam to be compressed by the piston 
on the return stroke, a considerable portion of the 
water caused by condensation will be reevaporated into 
steam by the heat and consequent rise in pressure 
caused by compression. 

Ordinates. Parallel lines drawn at equal distances 
apart across the face of the diagram, and perpendicu- 
lar to the atmospheric line. They serve as a guide to 
facilitate the measurement of the average forward 
pressure throughout the stroke, or the pressure at any 
point of the stroke if desired. 

Eccentric. A mechanical device used in place of a 
crank tor converting rotary into reciprocating motion. 
An eccentric is in fact a form of crank in which the 
crank pin, corresponding to the ecc^-^tric sheave, em- 
braces the shaft, but owing to the great leverage at 
which the friction between the sheave and the strap 
acts, compared with its short turning leverage, it can 



224 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

only be used to advantage for the purpose named 
above. 

Eccentric Throw is the distance from the center oi 
the eccentric to the center of the shaft. This defini- 
tion also applies to the term "radius of eccentric- 

ity." 

Eccentric Position. The location of the highest poin: 
of the eccentric relative to the center of the crank 
pin, measured or expressed in degrees. 

Angular Advance. The distance that the high point 
of the eccentric is set ahead of a line at right angles 
with the crank. In other words, the lap angfle plus 
the lead angle. If a valve had neither lap nor lead, 
the position of the high point of the eccentric would 
be on a line at right angles with the crank; as, for 
instance, the crank being at 0° the eccentric would 
stand at 90°. 

Valve Travel. The distance covered by the valve 
in its movement. It equals twice the throw of the 
eccentric. 

Lap. The amount that the ends of the valve project 
over the edges of the ports when the valve is at mid- 
travel. 

Outside or Steam Lap. The amount that the end of 
the valve overlaps or projects over the outside edge of 
the steam port. 

Lnside Lap. The lap of the inside or exhaust ^Ag^ 
of the valve over the inside edge of the port. 

Lead. The amount that the port is open when the 
crank is on the dead center. The object of giving a 
valve lead is tc ^jpply a cushion of live steam which, 
in conjunction with that already confined in the clear- 
ance space by compression, shall serve to bring the 
moving parts of the engine to rest quietly at the end 



THE INDICATOR 



225 



of the stroke, and also quicken the action of the pis- 
ton in beginning the return stroke, 

Compressmi. Closing of the exhaust passage before 
the steam is entirely exhausted from the cylinder. A 
certain quantity of steam is thus compressed into the 
clearance space. 

Table 15, giving areas and circumferences of circles, 
is here inserted, for the reason' that in the study of 
indicator diagrams there is very often occasion for 
reference to such a table. 

In the following analysis of indicator diagrams all 




INDICATOR DIAGRAM 



Figure 103 



of the Illustrations are reproductions of actual diagrams 
taken under ordinary working conditions. 

Fig. 103 shows a sample diagram taken from a loco- 
motive running at a speed of 29 miles per hour, and 
cutting off at 5^ inches. By reference to the letters, 
the different lines and points into which an indicator 
diagram is divided may be readily distinguished. 
The line V indicates the base line, or line of perfect 
vacuum, from which pressures are measured, especially 
in calculations of^sfeam consumed per horse-power 
hour. This line is drawn at a point 14.7 lbs. below the 
atmospheric line A, as indicated by measurements 



226 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

made with the scale adapted to the spring used in tak- 
ing the diagram. The method of drawing the line ot 
atmospheric pressure has already been described. It 
is from this line that the mean effective pressure of the 
steam upon the piston during the stroke is estimated 
in all calculations of diagrams taken from locomotives 
and other non-condensing engines. 

Admission at the beginning of the stroke is shown 
at B, and from B to D is the admission line. From D 
to E is the steam line. E is the point of cut-off, and 
from E to F is the expansion curve. F is the point of 
release or exhaust opening, and from this point to C 




Figure 104 

is the line of back pressure or counter pressure, and 
the amount of this pressure depends upon the height 
of this line above line A. Compression begins at C, 
and from this point to B is the compression curve. 

Fig. 104 shows bad valve adjustment, the engine 
doing by far the largest portion of the work in the 
head end of the cylinder. 

In order to illustrate the process of ascertaining the 
M. E. P. without dividing the diagram into ordinates, 
the following computation is given, together with rules, 
etc. In this process two important factors are neces- 
sary, viz., the absolute initial pressure and the absolute 



THE INDICATOR 



227 



Table :5 
Areas and Circumferences of Circles. 



Diam. 


Area. 


Circum. 


Diam. 


Area. 


Circum. 


Diam. 


Area. 


Circum, 


. .25 


.049 


.7854 


15.5 


188.692 


48.694 


31 


754.769 


97.389 


.5 


.1963 


I.570S 


16 


201.062 


50.265 


31.25 


766.992 


98.175 


I.O 


.7854 


3.1416 


16.25 


207.394 


51.051 


31-5 


799.313 


98.968 


1.25 


I.2271 


3.9270 


16.5 


213.825 


51.836 


32 


804.249 


100.53 


1.5 


I.7671 


4.7124 


17 


226.980 


53.407 


32.25 


816.86 


101.31 


2 


3.1416 


6.2S32 


17.25 


233.705 


n4- 192 


33 


855.30 


103.67 


2.25 


3.9760 


7.0686 


17.5 


240.520 


54.978 


33.25 


868.30 


104.45 


2.5 


4.9087 


7.8540 


18 


254.469 


56.548 


33.5 


881.41 


105.24 


3 


7.0686 


9.4248 


18.25 


261.587 


57.334 


34 


907.92 


106.81 


3.25 


8.2957 


10,210 


18.5 


268.803 


58.119 


34.25 


921.32 


107.60 


3.5 


9.6211 


10.995 


19 


283.529 


59.690 


34.5 


934.82 


108.38 


4 


12.566 


12.566 


19.25 


291.039 


60.475 


35 


962.11 


106.95 


4.25 


14.186 


13.351 


19-5 


298.648 


61.26T 


35.25 


975.90 


110.74 


4.5 


15.904 


14.137 


20 


314.160 


62.832 


35.5 


989.80 


III. 52 


5 


19.635 


15.708 


20.25 


322.063 


63.617 


36 


1017.8 


113.09 


5-25 


21.647 


16.493 


20.5 


330.064 


64.402 


36.25 


T032.06 


113.88 


5.5 


23.758 


17.278 


21 


346.361 


65.973 


36.5 


1046.35 


114.66 


6 


28.274 


18.849 


21.25 


354.657 


66.759 


37 


1075.21 


116.23 


6.25 


30.679 


19.635 


21.5 


363.051 


67.544 


37.25 


1089. 79 


117.01 


6.5 


33.183 


20.420 


22 


380.133 


69.115 


37.5 


1104.46 


117.81 


7 


38.484 


21.991 


22.25 


388.822 


^9.900 


38 


Ii34.ll 


119.38 


7-25 


41.282 


22.776 


22.5 


397.608 


70.686 


38.25 


1149.08 


120.16 


7-5 


44.178 


23.562 


23 


415.476 


72.256 


38.5 


1164.15 


120.95 


8 


50.265 


25.132 


23.25 


424.557 


73.042 


39 


1194.59 


122.52 


8.25 


53.456 


25.918 


23-5 


433.731 


73.827 


39.25 


1209.95 


123.30 


8.5 


56.745 


26.703 


24 


452.390 


75.398 


39.5 


1225.42 


124.09 


9 


63.617 


28.274 


24.25 


461.864 


76.183 


40 


1256.64 


125.66 


9.25 


67.200 


29.P59 


24.5 


471.436 


76.969 


40.25 


1272.39 


126.44 


9-5 


70.882 


29.845 


25 


490.875 


78.540 


40.5 


1288.25 


127.23 


10 


78.540 


31.416 


25.25 


500.741 


79.325 


41 


T320.25 


128.80 


10.25 


82.516 


32.201 


25.5 


510.70G 


80.110 


41.25 


1336.40 


129.59 


10.5 


86.590 


32.986 


26 


530.930 


81.681 


41.5 


1352.65 


130.37 


II 


95.033 


34.557 


26.25 


541.189 


82.467 


42 


1385.44 


131.94 


11.25 


99.402 


35.343 


26.5 


551.547 


83.252 


42.25 


1401.98 


132.73 


IT. 5 


103.869 


36.128 


27 


572.556 


84.823 


42.5 


1418.62 


133.51 


12 


113.097 


37.699 


27.25 


583.208 


85.608 


43 


1452.20 


135.08 


12.25 


117.859 


38.484 


27.5 


593.95S 


86.394 


43.25 


1469.13 


135.87 


12.5 


122.718 


39-270 


28 


615.753 


87.964 


43.5 


1486.17 


136.65 


13 


132.732 


40. 840 


28.25 


626.798 


88.750 


44 


1520.53 


138.23 


13.25 


137.886 


41.620 


28.5 


637.941 


89.535 


44-25 


1537.86 


139.01 


13.5 


H3.I30 


42.411 


29 


660.521 


91.106 


44.5 


1555.28 


139.80 


14 


153.938 


43.982 


29.25 


671.958 


91.891 


45 


1590.43 


141.37 


14.25 


159-485 


44.767 


29.5 


683.494 


92.677 


45.25 


1608.15 


142.15 


14.5 


165.130 


45.553 


30 


706.860 


94.248 


45-5 


1625.97 


142.94 


15 


176.715 


47.124 


30.25 


718.690 


95.033 


46 


1661.90 


144.51 


15.25 


182.654 


47-909 


30.5 


730.618 


95.818 


46.25 


16S0.01 


145-29 



MS LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

Table 15 — Contirmea 



Diam., Area. 


Circum. 


Diam. 


Area. 


Circum. 


Diam. 


Area. 


Circum. 


46.5 


i6g8.23 


146.08 


62.25 


3043-47 


195.56 


78 


4773.37 


245.04 


47 


1734.94 


147-65 


62.5 


3067.96 


196.35 


7S-25 


4809.05 


245.83 


47-25 


1753-45 


148.44 


63 


3117.25 


197.92 


78.5 


4S39.83 


246.61 


47.5 


1772.05 


149.22 


63.25 


3142.04 


198.71 


79 


4901.68 


248.19 


48 


1809.56 


150.79 


63.5 


3166.92 


199.50 


79-25 


4932.75 


248.97 


48.25 


1828.46 


151.58 


64 


3216.99 


201.06 


79-5 


4963.92 


249. 76 


4S.5 


1S47.45 


152.36 


64.25 


3242.17 


201.85 


80 


5026.56 


251.33 


49 


1S85.74 


153-93 


64.5 


3267.46 


202.68 


80.5 


5089.5S 


252.90 


49.25 


1905.03 


154-72 


65 


3318.31 


204.20 


81 ■ 


5153.00 


254.47 


49-5 


1924.42 


155.50 


65.25 


3343-88 


204.99 


81.5 


5216.S2 


256.04 


50 


1963-50 


157.08 


65.5 


3369-56 


205.77 


82 


5281.02 


257.61 


50.25 


1983.18 


157.86 


66 


3421.20 


207.34 


S2.5 


5345.62 


259.18 


50.5 


2002.96 


158.65 


66.25 


3447-16 


208.13 


83 


5410.62 


260.75 


51 


2042.82 


160.22 


66.5 


3473-23 


208.91 


83.5 


5476.00 


262.32 


51.25 


2062.90 


161.00 


67 


3525.66 


210.49 


84 


5541.78 


263.89 


51.5 


2083.07 


161.79 


67-25 


3552.01 


211.27 


84.5 


5607.95 


265.46 


52 


2123.72 


163.36 


67-5 


3573.47 


212.06 


85 


5674.51 


267.04 


52.25 


2144.19 


164.14 


68 


3631.68 


213.63 


85.5 


5741-47 


268.60 


52.5 


2164.75 


164.19 


68.25 


3658.44 


214.41 


86 


5808.81 


270.17 


53 


2206.18 


166.50 


68.5 


3685.29 


215.20 


86.5 


5876.55 


271.75 


53.25 


2227.05 


167.29 


69 


3739.28 


216.77 


87 


5944-66 


273.32 


53.5 


2248.01 


168.07 


69.25 


3766.43 


217-55 


87.5 


6013.21 


274.89 


54 


2290.22 


169.64 


69.5 


3793.67 


218.34 


88 


6082.13 


276.46 


54-25 


2311.48 


170.43 


70 


3848.46 


219.91 


88.5 


6151.44 


278.03 


54.5 


2332.83 


171. 21 


70.25 


3875.99 


220.70 


89 


6221.15 


279.60 


5^ 


2375.83 


172.78 


70.5 


3903.63 


221.48 


89.5 


6291.25 


281.17 


55-25 


2397.48 


173.57 


71 


3959.20 


223.05 


90 


6371.64 


282.74 


L5.5 


2419.22 


174.35 


71.25 


3987.13 


223.84 


90.5 


6432.62 


284,31 


56 


2463.01 


175.92 


71.5 


4015.16 


224.62 


91 


6503.89 


285.88 


56.25 


2485.05 


176.71 


72 


4071.51 


226.19 


91.5 


6573.56 


287,46 


56.5 


2507.19 


177-5 


72.25 


4099.83 


226.98 


92 


6647.62 


289.03 


57 


2351.76 


179-07 


72.5 


4128.25 


227.75 


92.5 


6720.07 


290.60 


57-25 


2574.19 


179.85 


73 


4185.39 


229.34 


93 


6792.92 


292.17 


57.5 


2596.72 


180.64 


73.25 


4214.11 


230.12 


93.5 


6866.16 


293.74 


58 


2642.08 


182.21 


73-5 


4242.92 


230.91 


94 


6939.79 


295.31 


58.25 


2664.91 


182.99 


74 


4300.85 


232.48 


94.5 


7013.81 


296.88 


58.5 


2687.83 


183.78 


74-25 


4329-95 


233.26 


95 


7088.23 


298.45 


59 


2733.97 


185.35 


74-5 


4359-16 


234.05 


95.5 


7163.04 


300.02 


59-25 


2757.19 


186.14 


75 


4417.87 


235.62 


96 


7238.25 


301.59 


59.5 


2780.51 


186.92 


75-25 


4447-37 


236.40 


96.5 


7313-80 


303.16 


60 


2827.44 


188.49 


75.5 


4476.97 


237.19 


97 


7389.81 


304.73 


60.25 


2851.05 


189.28 


76 


4536.37 


238.76 


97.5 


7466.22 


306.30 


60.5 


2874-76 


190.06 


;'76.25 


4566.36 


239-55 


98 


7542.89 


307.88 


61 


2922.47 


191.64 


76.5 


4596.35 


240.33 


98.5 


7620.09 


309.44 


61.25 


2946.47 


192.42 


77 


4656.63 


241.90 


99 


7697.70 


311.02 


61.5 


2970.57 


193.21 


77 25 


4686.92 


^242.69 


99-5 


7775.63 


312.58 


62 


3019.07 


194. 78 


77-5 


4717.30 


243.47 


100 


7854.00 


314.16 



THE INDICATOR 



229 



terminal pressure, and they can both be obtained from 
the diagram by measuring with the scale adapted to 
the spring used. Thus, in Fig. 105 the absolute initial 
pressure measured from the line of perfect vacuum V 
to line B is jj lbs., and the absolute terminal pressure 
measured from V to line B' is 21 lbs. The ratio, or 
number of expansions, is found thus: 

Rule. Divide the absolute initial pressure by the 
absolute terminal pressure; thus, 77 -^ 21 = 3.65 = num- 
ber of expansions. 

Second. Find mean forward pressure. 




Figure 105 



Rule. Multiply absolute initial pressure by the 
hyperbolic logarithm of number of expansions plus I, 
and divide product by number of expansions. Thus, 
referring to Table 14, it will be seen that the hyper- 
bolic logarithm of 3.65 is 1.2947, to which I must be 

added. Then — ' ^ = 48.4 lbs., which is the abso- 

3-65 

lute mean forward pressure. From this deduct the 
absolute back pressure, which is 16 lbs. or i lb. above 
atmosphere; thus, 48.4— 16 = 32.4 lbs. M. E. P. 

Third. Find I. H. P. 

Area of piston minus one-half area of rod x 



230 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



M. E. P. X piston speed in feet per minute, divided by 
33,000. Thus (the diameter of rod being 3 in.), 
250.96x32.4x564 ^ 3 ^^^^P^ 
33,000 
The steam consumption per I. H. P. per hour may 
also be computed by means of Table 16, which was 
originally calculated by Mr. Thomson, and is based 
upon the following theory: 

Table 16 



T. P. 


w. 


T. P. 


w. 


T. p. 


w. 


3 


117.30 


13 


466.57 


23 


798.10 


3-5 


135.75 


13-5 


483.43 


23-5 


814.39 


4 


153-88 


14 


500.22 


24 


830.64 


4-5 


171.94 


H'O 


517.07 


24.5 


846.96 


5 


186.75 


15 


533.85 


25 


863.25 


5-5 


207.60 


15-5 


550.64 


25-5 


879.49 


6 


225.24 


16 


567.36 


26 


895.70 


6.5 


242.97 


16.5 


584.10 


26.5 


911.86 


7 


260.54 


17 


600. 78 


27 


927.99 


7-5 


278.06 


17-5 


617.40 


27-5 


944-07 


8 


295-44 


18 


633.96 


28 


960.12 


8.5 


312.80 


18.5 


650.46 


28.5 


976.27 


9 


330.03 


19 


666.90 


29 


992.38 


9-5 


347-27 


19-5 


683.38 


29.5 


1008.46 


10 


364.40 


20 


699.80 


30 


1024.50 


10.5 


381.57 


20.5 


716.27 


30.5 


1040.51 


II 


398.64 


21 


732.69 


31 


1056.48 


II. 5 


415.73 


21.5 


749.06 


31-5 


1072.42 


12 


432.72 


22 


765.38 


32 


1088.32 


12.5 


449.69 


22.5 


781.76 


32.5 


1104.35 



A horse-power = 33,000 ft. lbs. per minute, 01 
1,980,000 ft. lbs. per hour, or 1,980,000 x 12 = 23,760.- 
000 in. lbs. per hour, meaning that the same amount 
of energy required to lift 33,000 lbs. one foot high in 
one minute of time would lift 23,760,000 lbs. one inch 
high in one minute of time. Now, if an engine were 
driven by a fluid that weighed one pound per cubic 



THE INDICATOR 231 

inch, and the mean effective pressure of this fluid upon 
the piston was one pound per square inch, it would 
require 23,760,000 lbs. of the fluid per horse-power per 
hour. But, if in place of the heavier fluid we substi- 
tute pure distilled water, of which it requires 27.648 cu. 
in. to weigh one pound, the consumption per I. H. P. 
per hour will be considerably less; as, for instance, 
23,760,000-27.648 = 859,375 lbs., which would be the 
rate per hour of the water driven engine if the M. E. P. 
of the water was one pound per square inch and if 
the M. E. P. was increased to 20 lbs., then twenty 
times more power would be developed with the same 
volume of water, but the weight of water consumed per 
H. P. per hour would be proportionately less. Now, 
if the engine is driven by steam it will consume just as 
much less water in proportion as the water required to 
make the steam is less in volume than the steam used. 
Therefore if the above constant number, 859,375, be 
divided by the M. E. P. of any diagram and by the 
volume of the terminal pressure, the quotient will be 
the water (or steam) consumption per I. H. P. per 
hour. 

Referring to Table 16, tne numbers in the W columns 
are the quotients obtained by dividing the constant, 
859,375, by the volumes of the absolute pressures 
given in the columns under T. P. and which represent 
terminal pressures. The table is considerably abridged 
from the original, which was very full and complete, 
the pressures advancing by tenths of a pound from 3 
lbs. to 60 lbs.; but it is seldom that in ordinary prac- 
tice there is needed such accuracy. If at any time, 
however, a diagram should show a terminal pressure 
not given in the table, the correct factor for that pres- 
sure can be easily found by dividing the constant 



232 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

S59'375 by the relative volume of the pressure as 
found in Table 4 of the properties of saturated steam 
given in another chapter. 

Referring again to Fig. 105, it is seen that the ter- 
minal pressure is 21 lbs. absolute, and by reference to 
Table 16 and glancing down column T. P. until 21 is 
reached, it will be seen that the number opposite in 
column W- is 732.69. This number divided by the 
M. E. P. of the diagram Fig. 105, which is 32.4 lbs., 
gives 22.6 lbs. per I. H. P. per hour as the steam con- 
sumption. The rate thus found makes no allowance 
for clearance and compression, however, and these 
two very important items will be treated in a succeed- 
ing chapter, together with the method of correction for 
the above, viz., clearance and compression, as they 
enter largely into the steam economy of an engine. 

Steam Consumption from Indicator Diagrams. In calcu- 
lating the steam consumption of an engine, two very 
important factors must not be lost sight of, viz., clear- 
ance and compression. Especially is this the case in 
regard to clearance when there is little or no com- 
pression, for the reason that the steam required to fill 
the clearance space at each stroke of the engine is 
practically wasted, and all of it passes into the atmos- 
phere or the condenser, as the case may be, without 
having done any useful work except to merely fill the 
space devoted to clearance. On the other hand, if the 
exhaust valve is closed before the piston completes the 
return stroke, the steam then remaining in the cylinder 
will be compressed into the clearance space and can 
be deducted from the total volume, which, without 
compression, would have been exhausted at the ter- 
minal pressure. 

Figs. 106 and 107, which are reproductions of dia- 



THE INDICATOR 233 

grams taken by the author while adjusting the valves 
on a 16 X 42 in. corliss engine, will serve to graphically 
illustrate this point. Fig. 106, which was the first one 
to be taken, shows no compression. The point of 
admission at A is plainly defined by the square corner 
at the extreme end of the stroke. The clearance of 
this engine is 4 per cent of the volume of the piston 
displacement. The engine being 16 in. bore by 42 in. 
stroke, the piston displacement is found by the follow- 
ing calculation: Area of piston, 201.06 sq. in. x stroke, 
42 in. = 8444.52 cu. in. The volume of clearance space 




Figure 106 

is equal to 8444.52 cu. in. x .04 = 337.78 cu. in., which 
divided by 1,728 = .195 cu. ft. 

By reference to Fig. 107, taken after adjusting the 
valves for compression, it will be noticed that the 
steam is there compressed to 37 lbs., the compression 
curve beginning at C and ending at B. There is there- 
fore compressed during each stroke a volume of steam 
equal to .195 cu. ft. at a pressure of 37 lbs. gauge, or 
52 lbs. absolute. 

One cubic foot of steam at 52 lbs. absolute pressure 
weighs .1243 ^bs., and .195 cu. ft. will weigh .1243 x 
.195 = .0242 lbs. 



234 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

The engine was running at 70 R. P. M., or 140 
strokes per minute. Thus, according to Fig. 107, the 
total weight of steam compressed and doing useful 
work during one hour, and which without compression 
would have passed out through the exhaust pipe, is 
equal to .0242 x 140 x 60 = 203. 28 lbs. 

Now, in order to estimate the steam consumption of 
the above engine from diagram Fig. 106, it would be 
necessary to account for all the steam occupying not 
only the volume of the piston displacement at the end 
of the stroke, but the clearance as well, for the reason, 



Figure 107 

as before stated, that it would all be released before 
exhaust closure. This would equal 8444.52 cu. in. + 
337.78 cu. in. = 8782.3 cu. in., which divided by 1,728 = 
5.08 cu. ft. each stroke, or 10.16 cu. ft. each revolution. 
The absolute terminal pressure of Fig. 106 is 20 lbs. 
One cubic foot of steam at this pressure weighs .0507 
lbs., and the weight of steam consumed each revolu- 
tion would therefore be .10.16 x .0507 = .515 lbs., which 
multiplied by 70 R. P. M. = 36.05 lbs. per minute, or 
2,163 lbs. per hour. The horse-power developed by 
the engine at the time was 80. Therefore the steam 
consumption per I. H. P. per hour = 2,163 - 80 = 27 lbs. 



THE INDICATOR 235 

Referring again to Fig. 107, it will be remembered 
that the total weight of steam compressed during one 
hour was 203.28 lbs. The weight of steam consumed 
per hour, therefore, equals 2,163-203.28= 1959.7 lbs. 

Owing to compression, the work area of Fig. 107 is 
somewhat smaller than that of Fig. 106, amounting in 
fact to the area of the irregular figure enclosed between 
the points A, B and C. The work represented by 
this figure amounts to a very small proportion of the 
total work indicated by Fig. 106, still, in order to arrive 
at correct conclusions, it should be deducted there- 
from. 

Assuming the negative work to be equal to .55 horse- 
power, we have 80— .55 = 79-45 I. H. P. as the work 
represented by Fig. 107. As the total weight of steam 
consumed in one hour was 1959.7 lbs., the steam con- 
sumption per I. H. P. per hour will be 1959.7 - 79-45 = 
24.67 lbs., a saving by compression of 2.33 lbs. per 
H. P. per hour, besides the great advantage of having 
a cushion of steam in contact with the piston at the 
termination of the stroke, thus bringing the moving 
parts of the engine to rest quietly without shock or 
jar. 

The steam consumption may also be computed from 
the diagram, regardless of the dimensions of the cylin- 
der or the horse power developed. The mean effective 
pressure and also the absolute terminal pressure must, 
however, be known. This method has been referred 
to, but in the computation therein made, no correction 
was made for clearance and compression. 

Having reviewed these two factors at considerable 
length, it will now be in order to more fully explain 
the methods of treating diagrams when it is desired to 
make these corrections. 



236 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

First, draw vertical lines C and D, Fig. 108, at each 
end of the diagram, and perpendicular to the atmos- 
pheric line. Draw line V, representing perfect vacuum, 
14.7 lbs. below the atmospheric line, as indicated on 
the scale adapted to the diagram, which in this case is 
50 lbs. to the inch. Continue the expansion from R, 
where release begins, until it intersects line D V, 
from which point the absolute terminal pressure can 
be measured. 

Having ascertained the terminal pressure, which for 
Fig. 108 is 30 lbs., draw line D E, which maybe called 



Figure 108 

the consumption Ime for 30 lbs. The terminal being 
30 lbs., refer to Table 16 and find in column W, oppo- 
site 30 in column T. P., the number 1,024.5. Divide 
this number by the M. E. P., which in Fig. 108 is 41 
lbs., and the quotient, which is 24.99 ^^s., is the uncor- 
rected rate of steam consumption. This rate stands 
for the total consumption throughout the whole stroke 
represented on the diagram by the distance from D to 
C, which measures 3.25 in., but it is evident that there 
is a small portion of the return stroke, that indicated 
by the distance from E to C, during which the steam 



THE INDICATOR 



237 



compressed in the clearance space should not be 
charged to the consumption rate, but should be de- 
ducted therefrom. In order to do this, multiply the 
uncorrected rate by the distance from D to E, which 
is 3^ in., or 3.125 in., and divide the product by the 
distance from D to C, 3^ in., or 3.25 in. Thus, 
24.99 X 3-125 - 3.25 =^ 24.03 lbs., which is the corrected 
rate and represents a saving by compression of 24.99 "~ 
24.03 = .96 lbs., or nearly 3.7 per cent. 

In many cases the terminal pressure greatly exceeds 
the compression, an illustration of which is given in 
Fig. 109. It now becomes necessary to extend the 




Figure 109 



compression curve to L, a point equidistant from the 
vacuum line with the terminal at R. The consumption 
line R. L. now becomes longer than the stroke line 
R. M.; therefore the corrected rate will exceed the 
uncorrected rate by just so much; as, for instance, 
terminal pressure = 34 lbs. The factor, as per Table 
16, = 1152.26, and the M. E. P. of the diagram is 47 
lbs. Then, 1,152.26-47 = 24.5 lbs., uncorrected rate; 
24.5x3.125 in. (distance R. L.)-;-3 in. (distance 
R. M.) = 25.52 lbs., corrected rate, a loss of a little 
more than one pound, or about 4 per cent. 



238 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



There is another class of diagrams very frequently 
encountered, in which the terminal pressure is con- 
siderably below the compression curve, and in order to 
compute the consumption rate by the above method it 
becomes necessary to continue the compression curve 
downwards until it meets the terminal, as illustrated 
at A, Fig. no. R is the point of release, D A repre- 
sents the consumption line, and D C the stroke. The 
terminal is 8.5 lbs., and the factor for that pressure, 
according to Table 16, is 312.8. Dividing this number 




I 

Cu 
I 

B 






FlGURE 110 

by the M. E. P., which was 7 lbs., gives 44.6 lbs. as 
the uncorrected rate. The distance D to A, where 
the compression curve intersects the consumption line, 
is 2.625 in., and the total length of the diagram C to D 
is 3.375 in. Then 44.6 x 2.625 - 3.375 = 35 lbs. as the 
corrected rate. 

Theoretical Clearance. The expansion and compres- 
sion curves of a diagram are created by the expansion 
and compression of all the steam admitted during the 
stroke. This includes the steam in the clearance 



THE INDICATOR 



239 



space as well as in the cylinder proper. It is evident, 
therefore, that the volume of the clearance is one of 
the factors controlling the form of these curves, and 
when the clearance is known a correct expansion or 
isothermal curve may be theoretically constructed, as 
will be explained later on. Also, if the actual curves, 
either expansion or compression, of a diagram assume 
an approximately correct form, the clearance, if not 
already known, may be determined theoretically from 
them; although too much confidence should not be put 



1 


s 

1 


yv 


1 


J^^* 




1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 


s^>\ 


t 




. I 








y 



Figure 111 



in the results, as they are liable to show either too little 
or too much clearance, generally the latter, especially 
if figured from the compression curve. 

For the benefit of those who may desire to test this 
method of ascertaining the percentage of clearance of 
their engines, several illustrations will be given ot its 
application to actual diagrams taken from engines in 
which the clearance was known. 

Fig. Ill is from an engine in which the clearance 
was known to be 5 per cent. As compression cuts but 



240 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

a very small figure in this diagram, the expansion 
curve alone will be utilized for obtaining the theoretical 
clearance, and the process is as follows: 

Select two points, C and R, in the curve as far apart 
as possible, but be sure that they are each, within the 
limits of the true curve. Thus C is located just after 
cut-off takes place, and R is at a point just before 
release begins. From C draw line C D parallel with 
the atmospheric line. From D draw line D R, and 
from C draw line C E, both perpendicular to the 
atmospheric line. Then from R draw line R E, form- 
ing a rectangular parallelogram, C D R E, with two 
opposite corners, C and R, within the curve. Now 
through the other two corners, D and E, draw the 
diagonal D E, extending it downwards until it inter- 
sects the vacuum line V. From this point erect the 
vertical line V W, which is the theoretical clearance 
line. 

To prove the result, proceed as follows: Measure 
the length of diagram from F to G, which in this case 
is 3.75 in., representing piston displacement. Next 
measure the distance from F to the clearance line 
V W, which is 3.91 in., representing piston displace- 
ment with volume of clearance added. Then 3.91 — 
3.75 = .16, which represents volume of clearance; and 
. 16 X 100 -^ 3.75 = 4.3 per cent, which is approximately 
near the actual clearance, which, as before stated, was 
5 per cent. 

The Theoretical Expansion Curve. According to 
Boyle's law the volume of all elastic gases is inversely 
as their pressures, and steam, being a gas, conforms 
substantially to this law; although the expansion 
curves of indicator diagrams are affected more or less 
hy the loss of heat transmitted through the cylinder 



THE INDICATOR 



243 



walls, and by the change in the temperature of the 
steam produced by the changes in pressure during the 
progress of the stroke. The pressure generally falls 
more rapidly during the first part of the stroke, and 
less rapidly during the last portion than it should in 
order to conform strictl)^ to the above law, and the 
terminal pressure usually is greater than it should be 
to agree with the ratio of expansion. But this fullness 
of the expansion curve of the diagram near the end 
compensates in a measure for the too rapid fall near 



JS 




1 


n =a^ 







Af 



N 



Figure 112 



JO CJB A 



the beginning of the stroke. Therefore, if the engine 
is in fairly good condition, with the valves properly 
adjusted and not leaking, and the piston rings are 
steam-tight, it may be assumed that the expansion of 
the steam in the cylinder takes place according to 
Boyle's law, and it is found that the expansion curve 
drawn -by the indicator practically coincides with a 
hyperbolic curve constructed according to that law. 

Fig. 112 graphically illustrates the application of the 
hyperbolic law to the expansion of gases. The hori- 



242 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

zontal lines represent volumes and the vertical lines 
represent pressures. The base line, A F, represents 
the full stroke of a piston in the cylinder of an engine, 
and the vertical line A I represents the pressure of the 
steam at the commencement of the stroke. 

Suppose there is no clearance and that the steam has 
been admitted up to point H when it is cut off. The 
rectangle A B H I is the product of the pressure 
multiplied by the volume of the steam thus admitted. 
When the piston has traveled from A to C the volume 
of the steam has been doubled and the pressure C L 
has been reduced to just one-half what it was at A I, 
but the area of the rectangle A C L M is equal to the 
area of the initial rectangle, and, as before, is the 
product of the pressure C L multiplied by the volume 
A C. As the piston travels still farther, as from A to 
D, the steam is expanded to four volumes, while the 
pressure at D K will only be one-fourth that of the 
initial pressure; but the new rectangle A D K N is 
still equal in area to either of the others, A B H I or 
ACLM. 

The same law applies to each of the remaining rec- 
tangles; A E G O representing five volumes and one- 
fifth of the initial pressure, and A F R P representing 
six times the initial volume and one-sixth of the initial 
pressure, but each having the same area as the initial 
rectangle A B H I. Now, the area of the rectangle 
A B H I represents the work done by the steam up to 
the point of cut-off, and the area of the hyperbolic 
figure enclosed by the lines B H R F represents the 
work done by the expansion of the steam after cut-off 
occurs. This area and the amount of work it repre- 
sents may be computed by means of the known rela- 
tions of hyperbolic surfaces with their base lines; as, 



THE INDICATOR 



24j 



for instance, if the base lines A B, A C, A D, etc., 
extend in geometrical ratio, as i, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc., the 
successive areas, B H L C, B H K D, B H G E, etc., 
increase in arithmetical ratio, as i, 2, 3, 4, etc. 

On the principles of common logarithms, which 
represent in arithmetical ratio natural numbers in 
geometrical ratio, tables of hyperbolic logarithms have 
been computed for the purpose of facilitating the 
calculation of areas of work due to different degrees 
of expansion. Such a table is given elsewhere in this 
book, and the method of calculating the M. E. P. by 
this means is described 




Figure 113 

A theoretical curve may be constructed conjointly 
with the actual expansion curve of a diagram by first 
locating the clearance and vacuum lines and then 
pursuing the method illustrated by Fig. 113. A curve 
so produced is called an isothermal curve, meaning a 
curve of the same temperature. 

Referring to Fig. 113, suppose, first, that it is 
desired to ascertain how near the expansion curve of 
the diagram coincides with the isothermal curve, at or 
near the point of cut-off. Select point R near where 
release begins, but still well within the expansion 



244 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

curve. From this point draw the vertical line, R T, 
parallel with the clearance line, V S. Then draw the 
horizontal line, S T, parallel with the atmospheric 
line, and at such a height above it as will equal the 
boiler pressure as measured by the scale adapted to the 
diagram; such measurement to be made from the 
atmospheric line to correspond with the gauge pres- 
sure. From T draw the diagonal T V, and from R 
draw the horizontal line R D parallel with the atmos- 
pheric line. From D, where this line intersects T V, 
erect the perpendicular D E, thus forming the paral- 
lelogram R D E T, and as line TV passes through two 
of its opposite angles and meets the junction of the 
clearance and vacuum lines, the other two angles, R 
and E, will be in the theoretical curve, and R being 
the starting point, it is obvious that this curve must 
pass through E, which would be the theoretical point 
of cut-off on the steam line S T. 

Two important points in the theoretical curve have 
now been located, viz., E as the cut-off, and R as the 
point of release. In order to obtain intermediate 
points, draw any desired number of lines downward 
from points in S T, as i, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., and continue 
them downwards far enough to be sure that they will 
meet the intended curve, and from the same points in 
S T draw diagonals i V, 2 V, 3 V, 4 V, 5 V, etc., all to 
converge accurately at V. From the intersection of 
these diagonals with D E draw horizontal lines parallel 
with V V, and the points of junction of these lines 
with the vertical lines will be points in the theoretical 
curve. It will now be an easy matter to trace the 
curve through these points. If, on the other hand, it 
be desired to compare the curves toward the exhaust 
end of the diagram, draw lines E D and E T, Fig. 114, 



THI- INDICATOR 



245 



also T R, locating R near where release commences, 
after which draw line R D, completing the parallelo- 
gram E T R D, fixing R as a point in the theoretical 
curve started at E. After drawing the diagonal T V, 
proceed in the same manner as before to locate the 
intermediate points. 

It will be observed that in order to ascertain the per- 
formance of the steam near the beginning of the 
stroke, the starting point of the isothermal curve must 
be near the point of release, and conversely, if the 
starting point of the curve is located near the point of 

S 




Figure 114 



cut-off and coincident with the actual curve, the test 
will apply towards the end of the stroke. It is not to 
be expected that the expansion curve of any diagram 
taken in practice will conform strictly to the lines of 
the isothermal curve, especial/y towards the latter end 
of the stroke, owing to the reevaporation of water 
resulting from the condensation of steam which was 
retained in the cylinder by the closing of the exhaust 
valve. This reevaporation commences just as soon as 
the temperature of the steam owing to reduction of 
pressure due to expansion, falls below the temperature 
of the cylinder wails, and it continues at an increasing 



24^ LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

rate until release occurs. The tendency of this 
reevaporation or generation of steam within the cylin- 
der during the latter portion of the stroke is to rais,e 
the terminal pressure considerably above what it would 
be if true isothermal expansion took place. The ter- 
minal pressure may also be augmented by a leaky 
steam valve, while, on the other hand, a leaky piston 
would cause a lowering of the terminal and an increase 
in the back pressure. 

The Adiabatic Curve. If it were possible to so protect 
or insulate the cylinder of a steam engine that there 
would be absolutely no transmission of heat either to 
or from the steam during expansion, a true adiabatic 
curve or "curve of no transmission" might be 
obtained. The closer the actual expansion curve of a 
diagram conforms to such a curve, the higher will be 
the efficiency of the engine as a machine for convert- 
ing heat into work. 

Fig. 115 illustrates a method of figuring a curve 
which, while not strictly adiabatic, will be near enough 
for all practical purposes, while at the same time it 
will give the student an opportunity to study the laws 
governing the expansion of saturated steam. 

To draw the curve, first locate the clearance and 
vacuum lines V S and V V. Next locate point R in 
the expansion curve near where release begins, making 
this the starting point, and also the point of coinci- 
dence of the expansion curve with the adiabatic curve. 

The other points in the curve are located from the 
volumes of steam at different pressures during expan- 
sion; the pressures being measured from the line of 
perfect vacuum, and the volumes from the clearance 
line. 

The absolute pressure at R, Fig. 115, is 26 lbs. 



THE INDICATOR 



247 



From point R erect the perpendicular R T. Also draw 
horizontal line R 26 parallel with the vacuum line and 
at a height equal to 26 lbs. above vacuum line V V, as 
shown by the scale, which in this case was 40. The 
length of line R 26, measured from R to the clearance 
line, is 3yV iii-» or 3-0625 in. By reference to Table 4 
it will be seen that the volume of steam at 26 lbs. 
absolute, as compared with water at 39°, is 962. Now, 
if the length of line R 26 be divided by this volume, 
and the quotient multiplied by each of the volumes of 
the other pressures represented at points 30, 35, 40, 



r 


!c 


S 

80 






7« 




/ r 






/ / 


?' 




y / 


io 




// 


5S 




yx 


5o 




.^y 


HS 




•i^^ 






-*^ 








3o 


n 


^^.a^t"^ 


Zi 


Z 


J 


A 


V 


y. . 



Figure 115 



45, etc., up to the initial pressure, the products will be 
the respective distances from the clearance line of 
points in the adiabatic curve. These points can be 
marked on the horizontal lines drawn from the clear- 
ance line to line R T. 

Starting with line R 26, it has been noted that its 
length is 3.0625 in., and that the volume was 962. 
3.0625 -^ 962 = .003. Then the volume of steam at 30 
lbs. is 841, which being multiplied by .003 = 2.5 in., the 
length of line 30. Next, the volume at 35 lbs. = 728. 



248 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

Multiplying this volume by .003 = 2.1 in., length of 
line 35, and so in like manner for each of the other 
points. 

The process involves considerable figuring and care- 
ful and accurate measurements, which should be made 
with a steel rule with decimal graduations. It is not 
expected that the cut Fig. 115 will be found accurate 
enough in its measurements to serve as a standard; it 
being intended only to serve as an illustration of the 
process. The diagram from which the illustration was 
drawn was taken from a 600 H. P. engine situated 
some 200 ft. from the boilers, and there was a con- 
siderable cooling of the steam by the time it reached 
the engine, the effect of which is apparent. The 
curve produced by the measurements is shown by the 
broken line. The process can be applied to any 
diagrarn. 

Power Calculations. The area of the piston (minus 
one-half the area of rod) multiplied by the M. E. P., 
as shown by the diagram, and this product multiplied 
by the number of feet traveled by the piston per min- 
ute (piston speed), will give the number of foot-pounds 
of work done by the engine each minute, and if this 
product be divided by 33,000, the quotient will be the 
indicated horse-power (I. H. P.) developed by the 
engine. 

Therefore one of the first requisites in power calcu- 
lations is to ascertain the M. E. P. Beginning with 
the most simple, though only approximately correct, 
method of obtaining the average pressure, as illus- 
trated by Fig. 116, draw line A B touching at A and 
cutting the diagram in such manner that the space D 
above it will equal in area spaces C and E taken 
together, as nearly as can be estimated by the eye. 



THE INDICATOR 



249 



Then with the scale measure the pressure along the 
line F G at the middle of the diagram, which will be 
the M. E. P 

The process is based upon the theory that the 
average width of any tapering figure is its width at the 
middle of its length. This method should not be 
relied upon as accurate, but is convenient at times 
when it is desired to make a rough estimate of the 
horse-power of an engine. 

Figuring the M. E. P. by Ordinates. This is a very 
common method and one which can be relied upon to 



P 

Figure 116 

give accurate results, provided care is exercised in its 
use. 

The process consists in drawing any convenient num- 
ber of vertical lines perpendicular to the atmospheric 
line across the face of the diagram, spacing them 
equally, with the exception of the two end spaces, 
which should be one-half the width of the others, for 
the reason that the ordinates stand for the centers of 
equal spaces, as, for instance, line I, Fig. 117, stands 
for that portion of the diagram from the end to the 



25© 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



middle of the space between it and line 2. Again, line 
2 stands for the remaining half of the second space 
and the first half of the third, and so on. This is an 
important matter, and should be thoroughly under- 
stood, because if the spaces are all made of equal 
width, and measurements are taken on the ordinates, 
the results will be incorrect, especially in the case of 
high initial pressure and early cut-off, following which 
the steam undergoes great changes. 



Cr^nl(£ni, 




ss 

8 
7 









7fefi 



Figure 117 



If the spaces are all made equal, the measurements 
will require to be taken in the middle of them, and 
errors are liable to occur, whereas, if spaced as before 
described, the measurements can be made on the 
ordinates, which is much more convenient and will 
insure correct results. Any number of ordinates can 
be drawn, but ten is the most convenient and is amply 
sufficient, except in case the diagram is excessively 
long. For spacing the ordinates, dividers may be 
used, or a parallel ruler may be procured from the 
makers of the indicator; but one of the most con- 



THE INDICATOR 251 

venient and easily procurable instruments for this pur- 
pose is a common two-foot rule, and the method of 
using it is illustrated in Fig. 117. 

First draw vertical lines at each end of the diagram, 
perpendicular to the atmospheric line and extending 
downwards to the vacuum line, or below it, if neces- 
sary, in order to have a point on which to lay the rule. 
In Fig. 117, points A and B are found to be the most 
convenient. Now lay the rule diagonally across the 
diagram, touching at A and B, and the distance will 
be found to be 3^ in., or 60 sixteenths. 

Suppose it be desired to draw 10 ordinates. Divide 
60 by 10, which will give 6 sixteenths, or j/i in., as the 
width of the spaces, but as the two end spaces are to 
be one-half the width of the others, there will be ii 
spaces altogether, the two outer ones having a width 
equal to one-half of ^, or -fj. Now apply the rule 
again in the same manner, touching at points A and B, 
and with a sharp pointed pencil begin at A and mark 
the location of the first ordinate according to the rule, 
at a distance of -f^ from the- end. Then ^ from this 
mark make another one, which will locate the second 
ordinate, and proceed in like manner to locate the 
others. The last two or three marks generally come 
below the diagram, and if the diagram be taken from 
a condensing engine it may be necessary to tack it on 
to a larger sheet of paper in order to get these points. 
Having correctly located the ordinates, they may now 
be drawn perpendicular to the atmospheric line or 
vacuum line, either of which will answer. 

It should be noted that, owing to the diagonal posi- 
tion of the rule with relation to the atmospheric line, 
the spaces are not of the actual width as described by 
)he rule, but this is unimportant, so long as they are of 



«52 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

a uniform width. This method can be applied to any 
diagram, no matter what its length may be, and point 
B may be located at any distance below the atmos- 
pheric or vacuum lines, wherever it is the most con- 
(^enient for the subdivisions on the rule, sixteenths, 
eighths, etc., so long as it is in line with the end of 
the diagram. Having thus drawn the ordinc^tes, the 
M. E. P. may be found by measuring the pressure 
expressed by each one, using for this purpose the scale 
adapted to the spring used, adding all together and 
dividing by the number of ordinates which will give 
the average pressure. 

Referring to Fig. 117, begin with ordinate No. i on 
the diagram, from the head end of the cylinder. In 
this case a 40 spring was used. Lay the scale on the 
ordinate with the zero mark where it intersects the com- 
pression curve. The pressure is seen to be 49 lbs. Set 
this down at that end of the card and measure the 
pressure along ordinate No. 2, which is 55 lbs. Pro- 
ceed in this manner to measure all the ordinates, plac- 
ing the resulting figures in a column, after which add 
them together and divide by 10. The result is 26 71 
lbs., which is the mean forward pressure (M. F. P.). 
To obtain the mean effective pressure, deduct the back 
pressure, which is represented by the distance of the 
exhaust line of the diagram above the atmospheric 
line in a non-condensing engine, and in a condensing 
engine the back pressure is measured from the line of 
perfect vacuum, 14.7 lbs., according to the scale below 
the atmospheric line. 

In Fig. 117 the back pressure is found to be 3 lbs. 
Therefore the 'SI. E. P. of the head end will be 26.71 - 
3 = 23.71 lbs. On the crank end the M. F. P. is 27.23 
lbs., and 27.23 - 3 = 24.23 lbs. = M. E. P. The average 



THE INDICATOR 253 

effective pressure on the piston, therefore, will be 
23.71 4- 24.23 ^ 2 = 23.97 ^bs. 

Unless great care is exercised in the measurements, 
errors are liable to occur in applying this method, 
especially with scales representing high pressures, as 
60, 80, etc. The most convenient and reliable method 
is to take a narrow strip of paper of sufficient length, 
and starting at one end, apply its edge to each ordinate 
in succession and mark their lengths on it consecu- 
tively with the point of a knife blade or a sharp pencil. 
Having thus marked on the paper the total length of 
all the ordinates, ascertain the number of inches and 
fractions of an inch thereon, the fractions to be 
expressed decimally, and divide by the number of 
ordinates. The quotient will be the average height of 
the diagram, and as the scale expresses the number of 
pounds pressure for each inch or fraction of an inch in 
height, if the average height of the diagram be multi- 
plied by the number of the scale, the product will be 
the M. F. P. 

Referring again to Fig. 117, if the lengths of the 
ordinates drawn on the head end diagram be meas- 
ured, their sum will be found to be 6^^^ or 6.666 in. 
Dividing this by 10 gives .666 in. as the average 
height. The mean forward pressure will then be as 
follows: .666 x 40 = 26.64 lbs., or practically the same 
as found by the other method. 

Fig. 118 illustrates a type of diagram frequently 
met with, and one which requires somewhat different 
treatment in estimating the power developed. It will 
be noticed that, owing to light load and early cut-off, 
the expansion curve drops considerably below the 
atmospheric line, notwithstanding that the engine 
from which this diagram was taken is a non-condens* 



254 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



ing engine. When release occurs at R, and the ex 
haust side of the piston is exposed to the atmosphere, 
the pressure immediately rises to a point equal to, or 
slightly above, that of the atmosphere. 

Fig. Ii8 was taken during a series of experiments 
made by the author for the purpose of ascertaining 
the friction of shafting and machinery, and the engine 
it was obtained from is a Buckeye 24x48 in. The 
boiler pressure at the time was only 40 lbs., and a No. 
20 spring was used. The ordinates are drawn accord- 



^.2S 

5 

3 IX 
/.2$ 









>' 



*r- 







Figure 118 



;ng to the method illustrated in Fig. 117. By placing 
the rule on points A and B, the distance between those 
two points is found to be ^s/s in., or 58 sixteenths. 
Dividing this by 10 gives 5.8 sixteenths, or nearly ^ 
in., as the width of the spaces; the two end spaces 
being one-half of this, or y\ in, wide. The first five 
ordinates, counting from A, express forward pressure, 
represented by the arrows. The remaining five ordi- 
nates, counting from B, express counter or back 



THE INDICATOR 255 

pressure, represented by the arrows pointing in the 
opposite direction. Measuring the pressures along 
the first five ordinates, and adding them together, gives 
63.1 lbs., which divided by 5 gives 12.65 ^t)s. as the 
mean forward pressure (M. F. P.). 

Then figuring up the counter pressure in the same 
manner on the other five ordinates, beginning at B, 
the result is 4.25 lbs. The M. E. P., therefore, will be 
12.65-4.25 = 8.4 lbs. 

Obtaining the M. E. P. with the Planimeter. The area 
of the diagram represents the actual work done by the 
steam acting upon the piston. In a non-condensing 
engine the lower or exhaust line of the diagram must 
be either coincident with or slightly above the atmos- 
pheric line in order to express positive work. Any 
deviation of this line, either above or below the atmos- 
pheric line, represents counter pressure, the amount 
of which may be ascertained by measurements with 
the scale, and should be deducted from the mean for- 
ward pressure. 

On the other hand, the exhaust line of a diagram 
from a condensing engine falls more or less below the 
atmospheric line, according to the degree of vacuum 
maintained, and the nearer this line approaches the 
line of perfect vacuum, as drawn by the scale, 14.7 lbs. 
below the atmospheric line, the less will be the 
counter pressure, which in this case is expressed by 
the distance the exhaust line is above that of perfect 
vacuum. 

The prime requisite, therefore, in making power 
calculations from indicator diagrams is to obtain the 
average height or width of the diagram, supposing it 
were reduced to a plain parallelogram instead of the 
irregular figure which it is. 



256 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



The planimeter, Fig. 119, is an instrument which 
will accurately measure the area of any plane surface, 
no matter how irregular the outline or boundary line is, 
and it is particularly adapted for measuring the areas 
of indicator diagrams, and in cases where there are 
many diagrams to work up, it is a very convenient 

instrument and saves 
much time and mental 
effort. In fact, the 
planimeter has of late 
years become an almost 
indispensable adjunct 
of the indicator. It 
shows at once the area 
of the diagram in square 
inches and decimal frac- 
tions of a square inch, 
and when the area is 
thus known it is an easy 
matter to obtain the 
average height by sim- 
ply dividing the area in 
inches by the length of 
the diagram in inches. 
Having ascertained the 
average height of the diagram in inches or fractions of 
an inch, the mean or average pressure is found by 
multiplying the height by the scale. Or the process 
may be made still more simple by first multiplying 
the area, as shown by the planimeter in square inches 
and decimals of an inch, by the scale, and dividing 
the product by the length of the diagram in inches. 
The result will be the same as before, and troublesome 
fractions will be avoided. 




Figure 119 



THE INDICATOR 257 

Questions 

317. Who invented the indicator, and for what pur- 
pose did he apply it to his engine? 

318. What are the principles governing the action of 
the indicator? 

319. What will a truthful diagram from a steam 
engine cylinder show? 

320. Describe in general terms the construction of 
an indicator. 

321. Does the steam act upon both sides of the indi- 
cator piston? 

322. What does the atmospheric line show? 

323. Is this line important in the study of indicator 
diagrams? 

324. Where should the line of back pressure appear 
in a diagram from a non-condojnsing engine? 

325. What controls the length of stroke of the indi- 
cator piston? 

326. What does the number on the spring mean? 

327. Should the pencil fall below the atmospheric 
line in a diagram from a locomotive? 

328. What is the most practical device for reducing 
the motion of the cross head to correspond with the 
motion of the indicator drum? 

329. What are the main requirements in indicator 
connections? 

330. What should be done with these pipes before 
attaching the indicator? 

331. What regulates the height of the diagram? 

332. What is a convenient rule to be observed in the 
selection of the spring? 

333. What governs the length of the diagram? 

334. Describe the best method of tracing the atmos- 
pheric line. 



258 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

335. What data should be noted on the diagram as 
soon as taken? 

336. By what means may the taking of indicator 
diagrams from locomotives be greatly facilitated? 

337. What is absolute pressure? 

338. What is gauge pressure? 

339. What is initial pressure? 

340. What is terminal pressure and how may it be 
ascertained theoretically? 

341. What is back pressure? 

342. What is absolute back pressure? 

343. What is meant by ratio of expansion? 

344. What does the term wire-drawing mean when 
applied to an indicator diagram? 

345. What is condenser pressure? 

346. What does the term vacuum imply? 

347. What is absolute zero? 

348. What is meant by the term piston displacement? 

349. What is piston clearance? 
3$o. What is steam clearance? 

351. What is a horse-power? 

352. What is meant by piston speed? 

353. Define Boyle's law of expanding gases. 

354. What is an adiabatic curve? 

355. What is an isothermal curve? 

356. What is the first law of thermodynamics/ 

357. What is the unit of work? 

358. Define the first law of motion? 

359. What is momentum? 

360. What is the maximum theoretical duty of 
steam ? 

361. What is meant by the term steam efficiency? 

362. How may the term engine efficiency be defined? 

363. What are common logarithms? 



THE INDICATOR 259 

364. What are hyperbolic logarithms, and how are 
they found? 

365. What are ordinates as applied to an indicator 
diagram? 

366. What is an eccentric? 

367. What is meant by the throw of an eccentric? 

368. What is meant by position of the eccentric? 

369. What is angular advance? 

370. What is meant by the expression, steam con- 
sumption of an engine? 

371. What effect has back pressure upon the work 
of an engine? 

372. What relation should the steam line of a dia- 
gram bear to the atmospheric line? 

373. In calculations for steam consumption what 
two important factors must be considered? 

374. How is the piston displacement of an engme 
ascertained? 

375' What do the expansion and compression curves 
of a diagram show? 

376. Is steam a gas? 

377. What effect does reevaporation have upon the 
expansion curve? 

378. How is the horse-power of an engine calculated? 

379. What is meant by the expression M. E. P.? 

380. What is a planimeter? 



CHAPTER VIII 

COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 

The principal object in compounding locomotives is 
to effect economy in fuel, and this economy is due to 
the fact that with the compound engine the steam may 
be expanded to a much lower pressure than is possible 
with the simple engine, before it is allowed to exhaust 
into the atmosphere. Another source of economy in 
compounding the cylinders of any steam engine, sta- 
tionary or locomotive, is the prevention of that excess- 
ive condensation which is sure to result when steam 
at a high pressure is admitted to a cylinder, the walls 
of which are at a comparatively low temperature at 
the moment of admission, and this takes place at each 
stroke of the simple engine; as, for instance, assume 
the initial pressure to be 195 lbs., and the pressure at 
release to be 8 lbs. The temperature of steam at 195 
lbs. is 385°, and at 8 lbs. pressure the temperature is 
235°. This drop of 150° in the temperature during 
each stroke of the engine, tends to cool the walls of 
the cylinder, which will be warmed again by the next 
admission of steam. A large amount of heat is thus 
being continually absorbed by the cylinder walls, and 
there is also a constant loss caused by condensation. 

In the compound locomotive thr expansion of the 
steam is divided between two cylin lers, proportioned 
in such a way that the amount of work done in each 
will be the same. 

Various types of compound locomotives have been 
designed and built by eminent engineers in this coun- 

260 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 261 

try and in Europe, and while, as before stated, the 
main object in compounding is to utilize as much of 
the tremendous energy stored in the coal as it is pos- 
sible to utilize, still there are other important problems 
to be solved in the design and operation of compound 
locomotives, not the least of which is to so proportion 
the cylinders, especially of a cross compound, that 
there will be an equal distribution of power on each 
side of the engine, or, in other words, that the engine 
will be balanced. Another problem that has been 
constantly before the purchaser and the builder of 
compound locomotives, is that of keeping the number 
of parts down to as low a figure as possible, and thus 
to produce a machine that will use steam on the com- 
pound principle, and yet at the same time eliminate as 
far as possible the liability of additional expense for 
repairs that has always been connected with the com- 
pound as corn^ared with the simple engine. 

The progress along these lines has been slow, but 
there has been a marked development in the right 
direction, and there is no doubt that the compound 
locomotive has come to stay, and that eventually it 
will become the standard type. It therefore behooves 
engine men (engineers and firemen) to study them, and 
endeavor to familiarize themselves with their con- 
struction and operation. 

There are in use at the present time, in this country, 
four separate and distinct types of compound locomo- 
tives, each having its peculiar features. First, there is 
the Vauclain compound. This is a four cylinder 
engine, having two cylinders on each side of the engine. 
One of these cylinders is a high-pressure and the other 
a low-pressure cylinder, one being located directly 
above the other. 



262 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

Second, the balanced compound, a four cylinder 
engine, the two high-pressure cylinders being located 
under the center of the smoke arch, between the 
frames, and the two low-pressure cylinders on the 
outside. 

Third, the tandem compound, a four cylinder engine, 
having one high and one low-pressure cylinder on 
each side, these cylinders being in line with each 
other, and served by one piston rod, thus bringing all 
the strains in direct line also. 

Fourth, the cross compound, a two cylinder engine, 
having the high-pressure cylinder on one side, and the 
low-pressure cylinder on the opposite side, the diameter 
or bore of the cylinders being proportioned in such 
manner that an equal amount of power will be 
developed on both sides. This ratio is generally one 
to three, that is, the area of the low-pressure piston is* 
about three times that of the high, for the reason that 
the initial pressure of the steam admitted to the low- 
pressure cylinder is greatly reduced below the point at 
which it entered the high-pressure cylinder, and 
requires a larger area of piston to act upon in order to 
produce the same amount of power that it did in the 
high-pressure cylinder. These four forms of compound 
locomotives will be taken up, and each discussed in its 
regular order. The same valve gear is used upon com- 
pound locomotives as upon simple engines or those in 
which there is but single expansion. 

The Vauclain compound locomotive is the invention 
of Mr. Samuel M. Vauclain of the Baldwin Locomo- 
tive Works, and the following description of this sys- 
tem of compounding has been mainly furnished by the 
Baldwin Locomotive Works of Philadelphia, Pa. 

In designing the Vauclain system of compound loco- 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 263 

motives, the aim has been: 

1. To produce a compound locomotive of the great- 
est efficiency, with the utmost simplicity of parts and 
the least possible deviation from existing practice. 
To realize the maximum economy of fuel and water. 

2. To develop the same amount of power on each 
side of the locomotive, and avoid the racking of 
machinery resulting from unequal distribution of 
power. 

3. To insure at least as great efficiency in every 
respect as in a single-expansion locomotive of similar 
weight and type. 

4. To insure the least possible difference in cost of 
repairs. 

5. To insure the least possible departure from the 
method of handling single-expansion locomotives; to 
apply equally to passenger or freight locomotives for 
all gpuges of track, and to withstand the rough usage 
incidental to ordinary railroad service. 

The principal features of construction are as follows: 

Cylinders. The cylinders consist of one high-pres- 
sure and one low-pressure for each side, the ratio of 
the volumes being as nearly three to one as the em- 
ployment of convenient measurements will allow. 
They are cast in one piece with the valve-chamber and 
saddle, the cylinders being in the same vertical plane, 
and as close together as they can be with adequate 
walls between them. 

Where the front rails of the frames are single bars, 
the high-pressure cylinder is usually put on top, as 
shown in Fig 120, but when the front rails of frames 
are double, the low-pressure cylinder is usually on 
top, as shown in Fig. 121. 

The former (Fig. 120) is used in "eight-wheel** of 



264 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



American type passenger locomotives, and in "ten- 
wheeled" locomotives, while the latter (Fig. 121) is 
used in Mogul, Consolidation and Decapod locomo- 
tives; for the various other classes of locomotives the 
most suitable arrangement is determined by the style 
of frames. 

Fig. 122 shows the arrangement of the cylinders in 
relation to the valve. 

The valve employed to distribute the steam to the 




Figure 120 Figure 121 

cylinders is of the piston type, working in a cylin- 
drical steam-chest located in the saddle of the cylinder 
casting between the cylinders and the smoke-box, ar.tj^ 
as close to the cylinders as con\'enience will permito 

As the steam-chest must have the -necessary steam 
passages cast in it and dressed accurately to the 
required sizes, the main passages in the cylinder cast- 
ing .'eading thereto are cast wider than the finished 
ports. The steam-chest is bored out enough larger 
than the diameter of the valve to permit the use of a 
hard cast iron bushing (Fig. 123). This bushing is 
forced into the steam-ches-t under such pressure as to 
prevent the escape of steam from one steam passage 



COMPOUND ' LOCOMOTIVES 



26$ 



to another except by the action of the valve. Thus 
an opportunity is given to machine accurately all the 
various ports, so 
that the admission 
of steam is uni- 
form under all con- 
ditions of service. 
The valve, which 
is of the piston 
type, double and 
hollow, as shown 
in Fig. 124, con- 
trols the steam ad- 
mission and ex- 
haust of both cyl- 
inders. The ex- 
haust steam from 
the high-pressure 
cylinder becomes 
the supply steam for the low-pressure cylinder. 
As the supply steam for the high-pressure cylinder 




Figure 122 




Figure 123 

enters the steam chest at both ends, the only varia- 
tion from balance being area of steam at back- 
end, an advantage in case valve or connection to 



266 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

the valve-rod should be broken, as it holds them 
together. Cases are reported where compound loco- 
motives of this system have hauled passenger trains 
long distances with broken valve-stems and broken 
valves, the parts being kept in their proper relation 
while running by the compression due to the variation 
mentioned. To avoid the possibility of breaking, it 
is the present practice to pass the valve-stem through 
the valve apd secure it by a nut on the front end. 

Cast iron packing rings are fitted to the valve and 
constitute the edges of the valve. They are pre- 





FlGURE 124 

vented from entering the steam-ports when the valve is 
in motion by the narrow bridge across the steam-ports 
of the bushing, as shown in Fig. 123. The operation 
of the valve is clearly shown in Fig. 122, the direction 
of the steam being indicated by arrows. 

When the low-pressure cylinder is on top, as shown 
in. Fig. 121, the double front rail prevents the use of 
the ordinary rock-shaft and box, and the. valve motion 
is then what is called "direct acting," changing the 
location of the eccentrics on the axle in relation to 
the crank-pin. When the low-pressure cylinder is 
underneath, the rock-shaft is employed, and the 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 



267 



eccentrics are placed in the usual position; the valve 
motion is termed "indirect acting." Fig. 125 shows 
the relation of the eccentrics with and without the 
rocker-shaft. Great care should be taken by me- 
chanics, when setting the valves on these locomotives, 
to observe this 
difference and 
not get the ec- 
centrics improp- 
erly located on 
the axle. If the 
c r a n k-p i n is 
placed on the 
forward center, 
the eccentric- 
rods will not be 
crossed when 
the rocker-arm 
or indirect mo- 
tion is used, but 
will be crossed 
when no rocker- 
arm or direct 
niotion is used. 
Serious compli- Figure 125 

cations have arisen from this being disregarded. 

In setting the piston valves, only the high-pressure 
ports are to be considered. Both heads of the sieam 
chest are removed, and with a tram, from some point 
on the body ot the cylinder to the valve stem, the line 
and line positions of the valve in both front and back 
motion, are laid off and indicated by a prick punch 
mark on the valve stem. Using the same tram, the 
position ot the valve at different parts of the stroke 




268 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



can be ascertained, and the opening of the ports noted 
by the distance from the point of the tram to the prick 

punch mark. 
The relation of 
the low pressure 
ports to the 
valve must be 
ascertained by 
measurement, 
the same as the 
exhaust ports in 
ordinary slide 
valves. 

Various meth- 
ods have been 
employed t o 
transfer the mo- 
tion from the 
links to the 
valve-rod. That 
which has prov- 
ed most satisfactory is to attach the ends of the link and 
valve-rods to the arms of an intermediate oscillating 
shaft. This arrangement allows for the free vertical 

movement of 
the end of the 
rod attached to 
the link, and 
gives a parallel 
movement to 
the valve-rod. It also makes it convenient to ob- 
tain any required lateral variation in the line of the 
two rods. These parts are thoroughly case-hardened, 
and with reasonable care should wear indefinitely. It 




Figure 126 




Figure 127 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 



269 



is preferable, however, to use a rock-shaft when possi- 
ble, as there is ther less departure from ordinar}^ loco- 
motive practice. 

The cross-head is shown in Fig. 126. It is made of 
open-hearth cast steel and is machined accurately to 





Figure 128 

size. The bearings for the guide-bars are covered with 
a thin coating of block tin, about one-sixteenth inch 
thick, which wears well and 
prevents heating. The holes 
for the piston-rods are bored 
so that the piston-rods will 
be perfectly parallel, and 
are tapered to insure a per- 
fect fit. 

The piston shown in Fig. 
127 is made with either cast 
iron or cast steel heads, and 
is as light as possible. The 
rods, which are of triple-re- 
fined iron, are ground per- 
fectly true to insure good 
service in connection with 
metallic packing for the 
stuffing boxes. The diameter 




Figure 129 



270 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



of both piston-rods Is the same, both having equal work 
to perform. The\' are made large enough to resist strains 
due to any unequal pressure that may come upon 
them in starting the locomotive from a state of rest. 
The cross-head end has a shoulder which prevents 
the piston-rod being forced into the cross-head, and 
at the same time permits the cross-head end and the 
body of the piston-rod to be of one diameter, thus per- 
mitting vibra- 
tory strains to 
act throughout 
the entire length 
of the rod in- 
stead of concen- 
trating them at 
the should er 
next to the 
cross-head. The 
piston -rods are 
secured to the 
cross - head by 
large nuts, and 
these in turn are 
prevented from 
tightly against 




Figure ]30 



coming loose by taper keys driven 
them. 

It is obvious that in starting these locomotives with 
full trains from a state of rest, it is necessary to admit 
steam to the low-pressure cylinder as well as to the 
high-pressure cylinder, which is accomplished by the 
use of a starting valve (Fig. 128). This is merely a 
pass-by valve which is opened to admit steam to pass 
from one end of the high-pressure cylinder to the other 
end and thence through the exhaust to the low-pres- 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 



271 



sure cylinder. This is more clearly shown at E in 
Figs. 130 and 131. The same cock acts as a cylinder 
cock for the high-pressure cylinder and is operated by 
the same lever that operates the ordinary cylinder 
cocks, thus making a simple and efficient device and 
one that need not become disarranged. This valve 
should be kept shut as much as possible, as its indis- 
criminate use reduces the economy and makes the 
locomotive "logy." 

As is usual in all engines, air valves are placed in the 
main steam passage of the high-pressure cylinder. 
Additional air valves, marked C and C^ in Fig. 130, are 
placed in the 



steam passages of 
the low-pressure 
cylinders to sup- 
ply them with 
sufficient a i r to 
prevent the for- 
mation of a vacu- 
um which would 
draw cinders into 
the steam-chest 
and cylinders. 

The hollow 
valve stem shown 
in Fig. 131 accomplishes the same result, but with a 
more direct action, and is preferable for fast service. 
The check valve at the end of the hollow stem outside 
the steam chest is closed by the pressure of the steam, 
but stands open when the pressure is relieved and air 
is allowed to pass into the valve through the perfora- 
tion in the hollow stem. A vacuum is thus prevented 
from forming in the valve or low-pressure passages. 




Figure 131 



272 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

This arrangement will also prevent the accidental start- 
ing of the locomotive occasioned by a leaky throttle. 
The steam as it slowly escapes will pass through the 
hollow stem to the open air without creating pressure 
in the cylinders. 

Water relief valves (Fig. 129) are applied to the low- 
pressure cylinders and attached to the front and back 
cylinder heads to prevent the rupture of the cylinder 
in case a careless engineer should permit the cylinders 
to be charged with water, or to relieve excessive pres- 
sure of any kind. 

In all other respects the locomotive is the same as 
the ordinary single-expansion locomotive. 

Operation. It is not surprising, in view of their 
differences of opinion respecting single-expansion 
locomotives, that there has been much controversy 
among engineers and firemen in regard to the opera- 
tion of compound locomotives of this system. The 
first thing the engineer must learn is to use the reverse 
lever for what it is intended; that is, he must not hesi- 
tate to move it forward when ascending a grade if the 
locomotive shows signs of slowing up. The reverse 
quadrant is always so made that it is impossible to cut 
off steam in the high-pressure cylinder at less than 
half stroke, which avoids the damage that might ensue 
from excessive compression. It is perfectly practi- 
cabPe to operate the engine at any position of the 
reverse lever between half stroke and full stroke, with- 
out serious injury to the fire. When starting the loco- 
motive from a state of rest, the engineer should always 
open the cylinder cocks to relieve the cylinders of con- 
densation, and as the starting valve is attached to the 
cylinder cocks, this movement also admits steam to 
the low-pressure cylinder and enables the locomotive 



COMPOUND LOCO^^IOTIVES 



a*"* 




1 .> LOCOiAIOTIVE ENGINEERING 

*lo start quickly and freely. In case the locomotive is 
attached to a passenger train and standing in a 
crowded station, or in some position where it is unde- 
sirable to open the cylinder cocks, the engineer should 
move the cylinder cock lever in position to permit 
live steam to pass by into the low-pressure cylinder, 
thus enabling the locomotive to start quickly and uni- 
formly, without any of the jerking motion so common 
in two-cylinder or cross-compound locomotives. 
After a few revolutions have been made and the cylin- 
ders are free from water caused by condensation or 
priming, the engineer should move the cylinder cock 
lever into the central position, causing the engine to 
work compound entirely. This should be done before 
the reverse lever is disturbed from its full gear posi- 
tion. The reverse lever should never be "hooked 
up," thereby shortening the travel of the valve, until 
after the cylinder cock lever has been placed in the 
central position. It is often necessary to open the 
cylinder cocks when at full speed, to allow water to 
escape from the cylinders, especially when the engineer 
is what is commonly' called a "high-water" man, and 
in such case no disadvantage is experienced and the 
reverse lever need not be disturbed. The starting 
device should not be used iox any purpose other than 
the "starting" of the train. After the train is in 
motion it should not be used. Cases have been 
observed where the engineers use it all the time and 
have the reverse lever "hooked up" in the top notch 
(half stroke), in consequence of which the locomotive 
will slow down to a low speed whilst burning an ex- 
cessive amount of coal. Such running must result in 
general dissatisfaction. 

The starting device is useful in emergencies, as, for 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 



2H 




27: 



LOCOMOTIVE EXGINEERIXG 




COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 



277 



instance, when stalling with a heavy train on a grade, 
if live steam is admitted to the Ipw-pressure cylinder 
sufficient additional power is obtained to start the train 
and take it over the grade. This should be resorted to 
only in emergencies, and allowance should be made for 
the extra repairs caused by frequent cases of this kind. 



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Striate £ifpcifj4lOrt. 






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leSGTH OF STROKE. 

Figure 132 

On account of the very mild exhaust, the fireman 
should carry the fire as light as possible. .A little 
practice will enable him to judge how to get along 
with the least amount of fuel. 

The diagram (Fig. 132) shows the difference in the 
amount of water required to do the work at various 
points of cut-off in compound and single-expansion 
locomotives. The upper line shows the rate of water 



278 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

consumption per horse-power developed for several 
points of cut-off in single-expansion locomotives, 
whilst the lower line shows the same for compound 
locomotives. It will be observed that the most eco- 
nomical point of cut-off is about one-quarter stroke on 
the single-expansion locomotive, and about five-eighths 
stroke on the compound locomotive. It is also notice- 
able that the water-rate per horse-power varies very 
little on the compound locomotive when the reverse 
lever is moved towards full gear or longer cut-off, but 
in the single-expansion engine it increases rapidly, 
causing engineers to remark that they cannot "drop 
her a notch" on account of "getting away with the 
water." This does not occur with the compound loco- 
motive when the reverse lever is moved forward 
towards full gear, and no engineer should open the 
pass-by valve, admitting live steam to the low-pres- 
sure cylinder, until the last notch has been used on the 
quadrant and the engine is about to stall. 

It is also desirable to move the reverse forward a 
notch before the locomotive slows down too much, as 
it is better to preserve the momentum of the train 
than to slow down and again have the trouble of 
accelerating. In this way both coal and water are 
wasted. If these instructions are observed the loco- 
motive will work satisfactorily. 

Repairs. On account of the great similarity to 
single-expansion locomotives, mechanics familiar with 
the latter have no difficulty in understanding these 
compound locomotives. There is no new element of 
repairs introduced, no complicated starting or reducing 
valves, such as are common to other systems of com- 
pound locomotives. 

The cross-heads, when badly worn, may, in a short 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 



27i 




9&Q LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

time, be retinned by any coppersmith; in fact, an or- 
dinary laborer can be taught this in a few days. The 
cross-head is heated warm enough to melt solder, and 
is then cleaned and wiped with solder, using dilute 
muriatic acid, such as tinsmiths use in soldering. 
Block tin is then poured against the surfaces so pre- 
pared, to which it adheres. A piece of iron placed 
alongside the cross-head can be used to regulate the 
thickness 

The cross-head is then put on a planer to true it up, 
care being used not to let the tool "dig in" and tear 

off the tin. 

The pistons 
are treated the 
same as in ord- 
i n a ry single-ex- 
pansion engines. 
The packing- 
rings in the low- 
pressure cylinder 
require renewal 
more frequently 

than those in 
Figure 133 , . , 

high-p re s s ur e 

cylinders. It is also more difficult in compound cyl- 
inders to detect faulty packing rings, and they are 
sometimes noticed only by the locomotive failing in 
steam and in not making time on the road. 

The piston-valves should last a long time if properly 
lubricated, but when the bushing (Fig. 123) and valve 
(Fig. 124) are worn enough to require attention, the 
bushing should be bored out and new rings put in the 
valve; very often it is not necessary to bore the bush- 
ings, merely to put new packing-rings in the valve. 




COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES ?8i 

After the bushings (Fig. 123) have been bored sev- 
eral times, larger valves may be fitted to them, so as to 
have as little play as possible. A very convenient 
type of boring bar for boring out the bushings has been 
designed, by which the work can be done without tak- 
ing down the back head of the steam-chest. It is pos- 
sible with this tool to bore out the bushings in less 
time than required to face a valve seat on a single- 
expansion locomotive. 

When putting new bushings in the steam-chests, the 
device shown in Fig. 133 may be used, which gives 
the required power and is slow enough to permit 
the bushing to accommodate itself to the cylinder 
casting. 

When extracting old bushings, it is best to split 
them with a narrow cape chisel — they are only fit for 
scrap when removed, and can be much more quickly 
removed- this way than to attempt to draw them out 
with draw screws. 

Enough attention should be given the starting valves 
to insure their moving in harmony with each other. 
Engineers sometimes strain the cylinder cock shaft, 
which causes one starting valve to open and the other 
to remain shut; this causes the exhaust to beat un- 
evenly, and the engineer is apt to complain that the 
valves are out of square. Before altering the valve 
motion on these engines, make sure that the starting 
valves open and close simultaneously, and examine 
low-pressure pistons and piston-valve for broken pack- 
ing-rings. In one case an engineer ran his locomotive 
two days without any piston-head on one of the low 
pressure pistons, and even then could not tell what 
was the matter, only that the locomotive sounded 
"lame" and did not make good time with the train. 



282 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

Men were put to work to locate the trouble, and found 
it, to the great surprise of the engineer. 

Suggestions for Running a Vauclain Four-Cylinder Com- 
pound Locomotive. In starting the locomotive with a 
train, place the reverse lever in full forward position, 
throw the cylinder-cock lever forward, which operation 
opens the starting-valve and allows live steam to pass 
to the low-pressure cylinder. The throttle is then 
opened, and as soon as possible when the cylinders 
are free of water and the train is under good headway, 
the cylinder cocks and starting-valve should be closed. 
As the economy of a compound locomotive depends 
largely on its greater range of expansion, the engineer 
should bear in mind that in order to get the best 
results he must use his reverse lever. After the start- 
ing-valve is closed and as the speed of the train 
increases, the reverse lever should be hooked back a 
few notches at a time until the full power of the loco- 
motive is developed. If after moving the reverse lever 
to the last notch, which cuts off the steam at about 
half stroke in the high-pressure cylinder, it is found 
that the locomotive develops more power than is 
required, the throttle must be partially closed and the 
flow of steam to the cylinder reduced. On slightly 
descending grades the steam may be throttled very 
close, allowing just enough in the cylinders to keep 
the air-valves closed. If the descent is such as to pre- 
vent the use of steam, close the throttle and move the 
reverse lever gradually to the forward notch and move 
the starting-valve lever to its full backward position. 
This allows the air to circulate either way through the 
starting-valve from one side of the piston to the other,. 
relieves the vacuum, and prevents the oil from being 
blown out of the cylinder. On ascending grades with 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 



»83 



o 



a 

'^ o 

O 3 

d <! 



a? 



i ^ 
tft 




284 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

heavy loads as the speed decreases the reverse lever 
should be moved forward sufficiently to keep up the 
required speed. If, after the reverse lever is placed in 
the full forward notch, the speed still decreases and 
there is danger of stalling, the starting-valve may be 
used, admitting steam to the low-pressure cylinders. 
This should be done only in cases of emergency and 
the valve closed as soon as the difficulty is overcome- 
The tractive power of Vauclain four-cylinder com- 
pound locomotives may be ascertained by the follow- 
ing formula: 

j^ — + j^ — — — = 7; m which 

C= Diameter of high-pressure cylinder in inches. 

c = Diameter of low-pressure cylinder in inches. 

5= Stroke of piston in inches. 

P- Boiler pressure in pounds. 

D = Diameter of driving wheels in inches. 

T= Tractive power. 

It is not claimed for compound locomotives that a 
heavier train can be hauled at a given speed than with 
a single-expansion locomotive of similar weight and 
class. No locomotive can haul more than its adhesion 
will allow; but the compound will, at very slow speed 
on heavy grades, keep a train moving where a single- 
expansion locomotive will slip and stall. This is due 
to the pressure on the crank-pins of the compound 
being more uniform throughout the stroke than is the 
case with the single-expansion locomotive. 

The principal object in compounding locomotives is 
to effect fuel economy, and this economy is obtained — 

I. By the consumption of a smaller quantity of 
steam in the cylinders than is necessary for a single- 
c^xpansion locomotive doing the same work. 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 285 

2. The amount of water evaporated In doing the 
same work being less in the compound, a slower rate 
of combustion combined with a mild exhaust produces 
a higher efficiency from the coal burned. 

In a stationary engine, which does not produce its 
own steam supply, it is of course proper to measure 
its efficiency solely *by its economical consumption of 
steam. In an engine of this description the boilers 
are fired independently, and the draft is formed from 
causes entirely separate and beyond the control of the 
escape of steam from the cylinders; hence, any 
economy shown by !the boilers must of necessity be 
separate and distinct from that which may be effected 
by the engine itself. In a locomotive, however, the 
amount of work depends entirely upon the weight on 
the driving-wheels, the cylinder dimensions being pro- 
portioned to this weight; and whether the locomotive 
is compound or single-expansion, no larger boiler can 
be provided, after allowing for the wheels, frames, and 
other mechanism, than this weight permits. There- 
fore, the heating surfaces and grate area are practically 
the same in both types, and the evaporative efficiency 
of both locomotives is determined by the action of the 
exhaust, which must be of sufficient intensity in both 
cases to generate the amount of steam necessary for 
utilizing, to the best advantage, the weight on the 
driving-wheels. This is a feature that does not appeal 
in a stationary engine, so that the compound locomo- 
tive cannot be judged by stationary standards, and the 
only true comparison to be made is between locomo- 
tives of similar construction and weight, equipped in 
one case with compound and in the other with single- 
expansion cylinders. 

One of the legitimate advantages of the compound 



286 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

system is that, owing to the better utilizaticn of the 
steam, less demand is made upon the boiler, which 
enables sufficient steam-pressure to be maintained 
with the mild exhaust, due to the low tension of the 
steam when exhausted from the cylinders. This 
milder exhaust does not tear the fire, nor carry uncon- 
sumed fuel through the flues into the smoke-box and 
thence out of the smoke-stack, but is sufficient to 
maintain the necessary rate of combustion in the fire- 
box with a decreased velocity of the products of com- 
bustion through the flues. 

The heating surfaces of a boiler absorb heat units 
from the fire and deliver them to the water at a certain 
rate. If the rate at which the products of combustion 
are carried away exceeds the capacity of the heating 
surfaces to absorb and deliver the heat to the water in 
the boiler, there is a continual waste that can be over- 
come only by reducing the velocity of the products of 
combustion passing through the tubes. This is 
effected by the compound principle. It gives, there- 
fore, not only the economy due to a smaller consump- 
tion of water for the same work, but the additional 
economy due to slower combustion. It is obvious 
that these two sources of economy are interdependent. 

The improved action of the boiler can be obtained 
only by the use of the compound principle, while the 
use of the compound principle enables the locomotive 
to develop its full efficiency under conditions which in 
a single-expansion locomotive would require a boiler 
of capacity so large as to be out of the question under 
the circumstances usually governing locomotive con- 
struction. It is therefore evident that where both 
locomotives are exact duplicates in all their parfs, 
excepting the cylinders, the improved action of the 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 287 

boiler Is due entirely to the compound principle, and 
the percentage of economy should be based upon the 
total saving in fuel consumption, and not upon the 
water consumption, as in stationary practice. 

For the benefit of those who may test these locomo- 
tives, the following method is presented of determin- 
ing the water rate per horse-power from an indicator 
diagram: 

S= Stroke in inches. 

C= Per cent of stroke completed at cut-off. 

P= Pressure of steam at cut-off, taken from zero. 
JVp = Weight per cubic foot of steam at P pressure. 

11= Per cent of stroke uncompleted at compression. 

Q= Pressure of steam at compression, taken from 
zero. 
Wg = Weight per cubic foot of steam at Q pressure, 

E = Per cent of clearance in H.-P, cylinders. 

A = Area of H.-P. cylinders. 

P= M.E.P. of H.-P. cylinders. 

a = Area of L.-P. cylinders. 

K= M.E.P. of L.-P. cylinders. 

N= Number of revolutions per minute. 

;' = Ratio — ; hence, a = A x r. 
A 

All calculations are made on the basis of the high- 
pressure cylinder doing the work of both cylinders. 

The volume of the piston displacement is AS, and 
the volume at cut-off is A S C, since C is the proportion 
of stroke completed at cut-off. The volume of A' 
revolutions would be A NS C. As there are two strokes 
of the piston for each revolution, and there is an engine 
on each side of the locomotive, assuming that both 
engines are doing exactly the same work, there would 
be four strokes per revolution; hence 4 ANSC'is the 



288 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

volume of piston displacement at cut-off for one revo- 
lution. Since the clearance-space is expressed in per- 
centage of the piston displacement of one stroke, and 
this space is filled at each stroke, the volume of the 
clearance-space for one revolution would be 4 ANSE. 
The sum of these two quantities divided by 1728 will 
give the volume in cubic feet. The indicator-card 
gives the pressure at cut-off, and a reference to Table 
4 will give the weight of steam at that pressure; hence, 
the amount of steam used per revolution becomes 

y- p^l — ) Wp. But there is a certam 

amount of steam saved at compression, and the vol- 

ume at this pomt would be (- ^^ j ^* ^' 

the volume of the clearance space being again taken 
into consideration. Since this steam is saved by com- 
pression, it should be deducted from the amount used, 
and the formula becomes: 
f 4ANSC-\-4ANSE x „, f 4ANSH-\-4ANSE \ yr. 

\ 1728 ) ^ \ 1728 ; '^^' 

The H.-P. equals -^ ■ -. 

^ 12 X 33.000 

Then the water rate per minute would be 

a,ANS 



1728 



[{C-VE) Wp—{H^E) Wq) 



or 



AANS{P-{-rK) 
12 X 33,000 
229.16 



7?^((C+£) Wp-{H+E) Wq); 



and the rate per hour would be —p-:r~^^% 
or^^^^( (C^ E) Wp—{H+E) ^^ ), which formula 
IS to be used. 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 289 

If U is desired to get the steam at release H.-P., 
substitute the valufe of the point R and pressure /, also 
SxR, respectively, for Cy /, and CxS. See Figs. 
134 and I34i. 

M.E.P. H.-P. cylinder 87 pounds Clearance. . .08 

M.E.P. L.-P. cylinder 32 pounds Ratio . . 2.87 to 1 

M.E P. referred to H.-P. cylinder 178.84 

M.E.P. referred to L.-P. cylinder 62.31 

178.84 = P+rii: 

62.31=X + - 
' r 

135.3 

14.7 
150.0 = .3376 pound per cubic foot of steam at cut-off H.-P. cyl- 
inder. 

60.3 

14.7 



75 . ^ . 1756 pound per cubic foot of steam at compression H.-P. 

cylinder. 
30. 

14.7 



44.7= .1079 pound per cubic foot of steam at point on L.-P. 

expansion line. 
16. 
14.7 



30 . 7 = . 0758 pound per cubic foot of steam at compression L.-P, 
cylinder. 

13750 ,3^33 1150 = 220.67 



178.84 62.31 

(.677+.08)X .3376= .2556 (.238+ .08) X .1756= .0558 

.2556 

^558 
.1998 

.1998 X 76.88 = 15.36 pounds steam at cut-off H P. c> Under. 

(.7444- .08) X .1079= .0889 (.083 -f .08) X .0758= .0124 

. 0889 
.0124 



0765 



,0765 X 220. 67 = 16.89 pounds steam at point on expansion line 
L.-P. cylinder. 



290 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




Figure 134 



Balanced Compounds. The ideal reciprocating steam 
engine, stationary of locomotive," simple or com- 
pound, is an engine in which the reciprocating parts 
are perfectly balanced against each other, and that 
balancing should be accomplished without the aid 
of rotative counter weights. This can be done only 
by a correct distribution of t h e 
steam to the two or more cylinders, 
and then transmitting the energy 
developed in each cylinder, direct- 
ly th-rough the medium of its gwn 
piston rod and connecting rod to 
the engine shaft. The proper 
balancing of the reciprocating parts of locomotives 
has always been an especially serious problem, and 
has grown more serious with the gradual increase in 
the size and speed of engines. But American loco- 
motive builders have not been tim- 
id in meeting and solving this prob- 
lem, and to-day the four-cylinder 
balanced compound locomotive 
stands forth as a splendid specimen 
of mechanical ingenuity and skill 
in designing, and will in time, if 
given a square deal, prove to be the ideal locomo- 
tive. 

The Baldwin Locomotive Works kindly supply the 
following brief description of the four-cylinder bal- 
anced compound built b}^ them. 

The cylinders are a development of the original 
Vauclain four-cylinder compound type, with one pis- 
ton slide ^'alve common to each pair. 

Instead of being superimposed and located outside 
of the frames, the cylinders are placed horizontally in 



V V ^^ — a ^a. 



Figure 134 a 



:OMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 




."O 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



Ir. e with each other, the low-pressure outside, and the 
high-pressure inside the frames. 

The slide valves are of the piston type, placed above 



STARTING VALVE 




steam distribution in balanced compound cylinders 
Figure 135 

and between the two cylinders which they are arranged 
to control. A separate set of guides and connections 
is required for each cylinder. 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 



2Q' 




iq4 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

The two high-pressure cylinders being placed inside 
the frames, the pistons are necessarily coupled to a 
crank axle. The low-pressure pistons are coupled to 
crank-pins on the outside of the driving wheels. Thi 
cranks on the axle are set at 90° with each other, and 
at 180° with the corresponding crank-pins in the 
wheels. The pistons therefore travel in the opposite 
direction, and the reciprocating parts act against, and 
balance each other to the extent of their correspond- 
ing weight. The distribution of steam is shown in the 
accompanying diagram (Fig. 135). The live steam 
port in this design is centrally located between the 
induction ports of the high-pressure cylinder. Steam 
enters the high-pressure cylinder through the steam 
port and the central external cavity in the valve. The 
exhaust from the high-pressure cylinders takes place 
through the opposite steam port to the interior of the 
valve, which ^cts as a receiver. The outer edges of 
the valve control the admission of steam to the low- 
pressure cylinder. The steam passes from the front of 
the high-pressure cylinder through the valve to the 
front of the low-pressure cylinder, or from the back of 
the high-pressure to the back of the low-pressure 
cylinder. The exhaust from the low-pressure cylinder 
takes place through external cavities under the front 
and back portion of the valve, which communicate 
with the final exhaust port. The starting valve con- 
nects the two live steam ports of the high-pressure 
cylinder to allow the steam to pass over the piston. 

The American Locomotive Company build a four-» 
cylinder balanced engine, having the cylinders located 
in practically the same manner as the Baldwin engine 
just described. 

The use of four cylinders, two high-pressure and two 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 295 

low-pressure, gives an opportunity for compounding 
under the most favorable conditions, and with each 
high-pressure piston working 180° from its low-pres- 
sure piston, and the other pair working 90° from the 
first pair, the successive impulses from the four cylin- 
ders produce a remarkably uniform turning moment. 
This results in a much more rapid rate of acceleration 
when starting up than has been possible with two- 
cylinder engines or with many previous types of four- 
cylinder engines. 

The following advantages are claimed for the bal- 
anced type of locomotives, by their builders, and the 
claim appears to be well founded. 

1. The elimination of counterbalance weights from 
the driving wheels, the engine nevertheless being in 
perfect balance both horizontally and vertically. This 
results in the complete absence of slip at high speed. 

2. The miore perfect compounding which results 
from this arrangement of cylinders, whereby it 
becomes possible to secure more favorable cylinder 
volume ratios than with the two-cylinder compound. 

3. The consequent approximately uniform turning 
moment throughout each revolution. 

4. The power of quick acceleration, resulting partly 
from the uniform turning moment and partly from 
admitting to the low-pressure cylinders, at the time of 
starting and through a special starting valve, live 
steam at reduced pressure. 

5. The reduction of stresses in the driving axles, 
crank-pins and other parts of machinery due to the 
system of distributing power from the cylinders, 
approximately one-half being transmitted to the for- 
ward driving axle and one-half to the rear axle. 

6. Increased hauling capacity and endurance at high 



296 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

speed, due principally to the perfection of the com- 
pounding and the consequent economical use of 
steam, but partly also on account of the perfect bal- 
ance of the reciprocating and revolving parts. 

Tandem Compounds. Theoretically the tandem com- 
pound with its four cylinders would appear at first 
glance to be the ideal design, especially for locomo- 
tives, as it places the cylinder in line, and as a result 
of this the strains are all brought to bear along the 
same axis. Oiie connecting rod, one set of guides, 
and one piston rod, serve to reduce the number of 
parts and, although there are two valves, one for the 
high-pressure cylinder and one for the low, yet one 
valve rod operates both valves. Notwithstanding that 
the tandem compound has all of these and numerous 
other points in its favor, it does not appear to have 
grown in popularity in the same degree as have the 
other types of compound locomotives. 

One of the main objections to the tandem, and no 
doubt a well-founded one, is based upon the difficulties 
that are encountered in the examination and repair of 
the pistons and valves. 

In many of the designs the methods that must of 
necessity be employed to do this work are very com- 
plicated, and consume too much time to meet with the 
approval of the "Boss"; and when it comes to run- 
ning the engine out on the road, there are many 
engineers who are not studious enough, by nature, to 
make a success of running a compound, especially of 
the tandem type. A compound engine, whether 
marine, stationary, or locomotive, requires careful 
handling, more so in fact than does a simple engine, 
and if the engineer in charge of one expects to get 
g-ood results from her, it is absolutely necessary that 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 



297 



he should have at least an elementary knowledge of 
the principles upon which it is constructed, the routes 
of the steam passages, the construction of the valves, 
pistons, etc. This knowledge is easily within the 
grasp of every engineer, and every fireman who 
expects to become an engineer, and the opportunitief 
for obtaining it are many. 

The tandem compound built by the American Loco- 
motive Company has been quite largely used in freight 
service dur- 
ing the last 
five years, 
and has met 
with a f a i r 
degree of 
success. 

Cylinders. 
The general 
arrangement 
of cylinders 
a n d of pis- 
tons and 

valves is Fj^^j^^ 13g 

shown in 

Fig. 136, in which the high-pressure cylinder is for- 
ward of the low-pressure cylinder, with both pistons on 
the same rod. The steam chest is common to both 
high and low-pressure cylinders, being open from 
end to end and serving the purpose of a receiver. 

The valves are hollow and permit an unrestricted 
flow of steam through the steam chest. There being 
no receiver pipe on these engines, the smoke-box is 
fitted up with steam pipes and exhaust pipe exactly 
the same as in simple engines. 




a98 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



Piston Valves. On the high-pressure cylinders the 
valves are arranged for internal admission, and on the 
low-pressure cylinders for external admission. An ex- 
amination of Fig. 136 will show that this design of 
valves allows steam to be admitted to the same side of 
each piston by means of the crossed ports on the high- 
pressure cylinder, the valves being shown as admit- 
ting steam. 




Figure 137 

Low-Pressure Cylinders. The saddle and cylinders 

are shown in Fig. 137 in front view and vertical sec- 
tion, in which the coring is shown for steam and 
exhaust passages. The saddle has an opening cored 
into the steam-pipe passage, extending from front to 
back on each side, where there is a circular flange for 
connection to the short length of steam pipe which 
extends from front of saddle to the high-pressure 
cylinder. Coring this passage through from end to 
end of saddle makes the cylinders interchangeable for 
use on either side. 

Starting Valve. To work the engine, simple or com- 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 



299 



pound, at will, the starting valve shown in Fig. 138 is 
used, this valve being secured to the side of steam 
chest over the high-pressure cylinder, and having 
direct communication with the steam passages into 
that cylinder. The by-pass valves for the hi^h- 
pressure cylinders are also contained in the casing of 
this starting valve and are worked in connection with 
the latter. 

By-Pass Valves. For the purpose of relieving the 
low-pressure cylinder of excessive pressure when 




UJ LjJ LU 



Figure 138 

^vorking steam, or freeing the same cylinder from back 
pressure when drifting, the by-pass valves shown in 
Fig. 139 are used. These by-pass valves are bolted to 
the side of the steam chest near each end of low-pres- 
sure cylinder, and furnish communication between the 
steam chest and steam ports in cylinder. 

Operation, Working Simple. To start the locomotive 
simple — that is, to admit live steam directly to the 
low-pressure cylinders— the starting valve A is placed 



300 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



in position shown in Fig. 138 by means ot 4 lever in 
the cab. Steam is admitted to high-presbtire steam 
chest through the short steam pipe connecting saddle 
and chest, and passes through ports D anJ H, which 
register with the high-pressure steam ports in steam 
chest. From D the steam is admitted to ports E and 
G, and passes around the by-pass valves B, B, into 
port H, the valves B, B, being held up tr- their seats 
by pressure from below through port C, which opens 
directly into the steam chamber of ch-jst. Steam, 
having access to both high-pressure steam ports, 

passes through 
both hollow 
P'ston valves 
and is admitted 
to the low-pres- 
s u r e cylinder, 
the engine 
working as a 
simple locomo- 
tive. 
Working Com- 

pounv . VVhen working compound, the starting valve 
A in Fig. 138 is brought to lap on port E, shutting off 
high-pressure steam from its passage into the low-pres- 
sure end of steam chest. Under these conditions no 
steam can reach the low-pressure cylinder, except from 
the exhaust of the high-pressure cylinder. 

Drifting. When drifting or not working steam, the 
by-pass valves B, B, in Fig. 138, being in a* vertical 
position, fall away from their seats by gravity and 
give a clear opening between the two ends of the high- 
pressure cylinder. The by-pass valves in Fig. 139 for 
the low-pressure cylinders are also in a vertical posi- 




Figure 139 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 301 

tion, and are held to their seats by the steam chest 
pressure when working steam. When running with 
closed throttle, the by-pass valves (Fig. 139) are raised 
from their seats by any pressure on the lower side, 
assisted by the spring under valve. With the valves 
raised from their seats there is a continuous opening 
between the two ends of low-pressure cylinder through 
cylinder steam ports into steam chest, providing relief 
from back pressure when drifting, by equalizing the 
pressure in the cylinders. 

Starting. Any compound engine will do more eco- 
nomical and satisfactory work operated as a compound, 
and should therefore never be worked as a simple 
engine except in starting, or when likely to stall on 
grades, and then only long enough to overcome the 
resistance of the train. 

Water. Attention should be given to the quantity 
of'water carried in the boiler, with the view of using 
steam as dry as possible. Water should not be any 
higher over crown sheet than is necessary for safety, 
since high water is not conducive to economy in 
operation, and is also a menace to proper lubrica- 
tion. 

Lubrication. When running under steam the high- 
pressure cylinder should receive the greater amount of 
oil. When drifting the reverse should be the rule, the 
low-pressure cylinder having the more oil. 

Breakdowns. When necessary to disconnect the 
engine on the road, the same methods may be used as 
with a simple engine, as to removal of parts, blocking 
of crosshead, etc. 

Testing Tandem Compound. The illustrations show 
sections through steam chests, valves and cylinders, 
with valves in various positions for testing. (Rules 



302 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

were formulated by E. P. Roesch, master mechanic, 
Chicago & Alton Railroad.) 

It will be noticed that high-pressure valve A is cen- 
tral or internal admission, while low-pressure valve B 
is external or end admission. Also notice that ports 
C and D, leading from high-pressure steam chest E to 
cylinder F, are crossed. Both valves A and B, and 
cylinder packings and piston-packing sleeve G, can be 
tested on each side of engine by simply moving reverse 
lever. To make tests, place the engine on quarter on 
side to be tested and proceed in manner designated on 
following pages. 

Testing High-Pressure Valve. Engine on top quarter. 
Reverse lever in center of quadrant. Starting valve 
S closed as in Fig 146 This places both valves A and 
B in central position, covering all ports on side to be 
tested. 

By opening throttle, steam is admitted to the high- 
pressure steam chest E, as shown in shade. If steam 
now flows from either cylinder cock, H or I, the high- 
pressure valve A is blowing. 

Testing Low-Pressure Valve. Engine on top quarter. 
Reverse lever on center, as in Fig. 140. Starting 
valve S open, as in Fig. 145. ^ 

Remove by-pass valve M in Fig. 145, but replace 
valve-cap, which is not shown, as it is bolted to under 
side of starting valve. This allows steam to flow 
through by-pass from high-pressure steam chest E, 
through starting valve ports N and O, and past exhaust 
edges X and Y of high-pressure valve A, into low- 
pressure steam chest P. 

If steam now blows from both low-pressure cylinder 
cocks K and L, the low-pressure valve B is leaking. 

Testing High-Pressure Cylinder Packing. Engine on 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 



3«>S 




304 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 







COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 



30s 



^^ 




,^o6 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



^smssssv*^ 




COMPOUND LOCOMOTWES 



307 



Ns\\^\\\\\\\m 




xvwwwwv;- 



3o8 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

top quarter. Starting valve S closed, as in Fig, 146. 
Reverse lever in back motion. 

This admits steam from high-pressure steam chest E, 
through steam port D, to front end of high-pressure 
cylinder F. 

If steam now blows from back high-pressure cylinder 
cock H, the high-pressure piston packing is blowing. 



P P 

4 - 





BY-PASS VALVE 
M 



BY-PASS 
VALVE 



HIGH PRESSURE STEAM 



Figure 145 

Testing Low-Pressure Cylinder Packing. Engine on 

top quarter. Starting valve S open, as in Fig. 145. 

Reverse lever in back motion. This allows steam to 

flow through starting valve into low-pressure steam 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 



309 



chest P, thence through front low-pressure steam port 
R to front end of low-pressure cylinder J. 

If any steam shows at back low-pressure cylinder cock 
K, the low-pressure piston packing is blowing. Always 
test low-pressure piston packing in this position. 

Testing Piston Packing Sleeve, Between Cylinders. 






p 




p 

J 


i 1 




1 


I 



^^■■^M^m 



.6 



BY-PASS VALVE 



vT D 



BY-PASS 
- VALVE 



N 



HIGH PRESSURE STEAM 



Figure 146 

Engine on top quarter. Starting valve S closed, as in 
Fig. 146. Reverse lever in forward motion. This 
admits steam from high-pressure steam chest E, 
through steam port C, to back end of high-pressure 
cylinder F only. 



3IO 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



If steam now flows from front low-pressure cylinder 
cock L, the piston sleeve G is worn and leaking. 

Starting Valve in Position for Working Simple, Fig. 
145 shows section through high-pressure valve, steam 
chest and starting valve. By-pass valve M removed, 
but having valve-cap replaced. For working simple, 
starting valve lever T should be vertical, which places 
valve S in forward position, opening both ports N 
and O. 



STARTING VALVE 




STEAM DISTRIBUTION IN TANDEM COMPOUND CYLINDERS' 



Figure 147 

For Fig. 141 test, the starting valve S is in position 
as shown in -Fig. 145, but having high-pressure valve 
A on center, by-pass valve M removed. For Fig. 143 
test, valves A and S are in position as shown in Fig. 
145, but having by-pass valve M replaced. 

Starting Valve in Position for Working Compound. 
Fig. 146, same section as Fig. 145. Both by-pass 
valves in place. Lever T in back position, so starting 
valve S covers port O. 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 311 

For Fig. 140 test, starting valve S as in Fig. 146. 
IViC high-pressure valve A on center. 

For Fig. 143 test, valves A and S in ^^actw.^ as 
shown in Fig. 146. 

For Fig. 144 test, starting valve S as in Fig. 146. 
High-pressure valve A in forward motion. 

The Baldwin Tandem Compound. In this type of loco^ 
motive, designed in 1902, principally for heavy freight 
service, four cylinders are used, with a high and low- 
pressure cylinder and cylindrical valve chest on each 
side. • The high-pressure cylinder is placed in front of 
the low-pressure, both having the same axis; that is, 
the center of the low-pressure cylinder extended 
becomes also the center of the high-pressure. 

Fig. 147 is a sectional elevation of the cylinders, 
valve chests and valves. The arrows show the dis- 
tribution of the steam. 

Each cylinder with its valve chest is cast separately 
and is separate from the saddle. The steam connec- 
tions are made by a pipe from the saddle to the high- 
pressure valve chest, and the final exhaust takes place 
through an adjustable connection between the low- 
pressure cylinder and the saddle casting. The valve, 
which is double and hollow, admits steam to the high- 
pressure cylinder, and at the same time distributes the 
high-pressure exhaust from the front end of the high- 
pressure cylinder to the back end of the low-pressure 
cylinder or vice versa, as the case may be, without the 
necessity of crossed ports. As shown in the accom- 
panying diagram. Fig. 147, A is the high-pressure 
valve by which steam is conducted from the live- 
steam openings through external cavities B and B to 
the high-pressure cylinder. The exhaust from the 
high-pressure cylinder passes through the opening C 



312 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



to the steam chest, which acts as a receiver; D is the 
low-pressure valve connected to the high-pressure 
valve by valve rod E. This valve in its operation is 
similar to the ordinary slide valve. The outside edges 
control the admission, and the exhaust takes place 
through the external cavity F. The starting valve 
connects the live^steam ports of the high-pressure 
cylinder 




Valve in Ceih 



Figure 148 

The Cross Compound. The cross compound locomo- 
tive has two cylinders, one on each side, with an inter- 
cepting valve, so arranged that the engineer can work 
the engine either simple or compound. When the 
engine is worked as a simple engine, the pressure of 
the steam that is admitted to the low-pressure cylin- 
der is controlled by an automatic reducing valve in 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 



3^3 



such a manner that it shall bear the same ratio to the 
pressure of steam admitted to the high-pressure cylin- 
der as the volume of the high-pressure cylinder bears 
to the volume of the low-pressure cylinder. Unequal 
strains are thus avoided. As previously stated, a com- 
pound locomotive should never be worked as a simple 
engine, except in starting a heavy train, or when 
there is danger of getting "stuck'' on a heavy up 
grade. 

The Baldwin 
Two-Cylinder Com- 
pound. The e s - 
sential features of 
this design, 
brought out in 
1898, are the in- 
tercepting and the 
reducing mechan- 
isms. These, 
when in normal 
position, permit 
the locomotive to 
operate by single 
expansion, and so continue until changed to com- 
pound. The engine is therefore readily started at 
any position of the crank. 

In the diagrams. Figs. 148 and 149, A is a double 
piston intercepting valve, located in the saddle casting 
of the high-pressure cylinder. In one direction the 
movement is controlled by a spiral spring, in the other 
by steam pressure. The function of the intercepting 
valve is to cause the exhaust from the high-pressure 
cylinder to be diverted, at the option of the engineer, 
either to the open air when working single expansion, 




Figure 149 



314 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



or to the receiver when working compound. C is a 
reducing valve, also placed in the saddle casting of 
the high-pressure cylinder, and like the intercepting 
valve is moved in one direction by a spiral spring, and 
in the opposite direction by steam pressure. The 
function of this valve is, in its normal position, to 




TWO-CYLINDER COMPOUND. CROSS-SECTION 

Figure 150 

admit live steam into the receiver at reduced pressure 
while the locomotive is working single exf)ansion. 
When the engine is working compound, this valve 
automatically closes, as it is evident that there is no 
further need of liv^e steam in the receiver. 

A further function of the reducing valve is to regu- 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 



315 



late the pressure in the receiver so that the total pres- 
sure on the pistons of the high and low-pressure 
cylinders may be equalized. 

The steam for controlling the operation of both 
intercepting and reducing valves is supplied through 
pipes D from the operating valves in the cab. When 
not permanently closed by pressure in the pipes D, the 




Figure 151 

reducing valve C is operated automatically by the 
pressure in the receiver. To this end the port E is 
provided, communicating with the receiver, and the 
^pace in front of the reducing valve; as the pressure 
rises the steam acts on the large end of the reducing 
valve, causing it to move backward and close the 
prssage H, through which steam enters the receiver, 
and thus prevent an excess pressure of steam in the 
low-pressure cylinder. 



310 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



Poppet valves F and G are placed in connection v/ith 
port E, one to prevent the escape of steam from the 
receiver to pipe D when the locomotive is working- 
single expansion, and the other to close the passage 
from pipe D to the receiver when working compound. 
Normally the lever of the operating valve in the cab is 
in the position marked "simple." In this position no 
steam is allowed to enter the pipes D, and no pressure 



Section trz 




Figure 152 

will be exerted on the intercepting and reducing valves 
in opposition to the springs, and they will assume the 
positions shown in Fig. 148. 

The ports of the intercepting valve A stand open to 
receive the exhaust steam from the high pressure 
cylinder, and deliver it through the exhaust passage B 
to the atmosphere. 

The reducing valve is open, admitting live steam 
through passage H to the receiver, and from thence to 
the* low-pressure cylinder. 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 317 

The receiver pressure is governed by the automatic 
action of the reducing valve, as previously explained. 
In this way the engine can be used single expansion in 
making up and starting trains, for switching and slow 
running. 

At the will of the engineer the operating valve in 
the cab is moved to the position marked "compound." 
This admits steam to the pipes D, and through them 
to the valve chambers W and C\ changing the inter- 
cepting and reducing valves instantly and noiselessly 
to the positions shown in Fig. 149. The exhaust from 
the high-pressure cylinder is diverted to the receiver, 
the admission of live steam to the receiver is stopped 
Dy the closing of the passage H, and the locomotive is 
in position to work compound. 

Both valves are of the piston type, with packing 
rings to prevent leakage. This insures an easy move- 
ment of the valves, and prevents the hammering 
action common to valves of the poppet type when 
automatically operated. 

Schenectady Cross Compound. The American Loco- 
motive Company kindly furnish the following descrip- 
tion of the two-cylinder cross compound engine as 
built at their Schenectady works. 

Figure 151. A sectional view through the smoke 
arch and cylinder saddles, showing the steam passages, 
receiver, 'and the location of the intercepting valve in 
the low-pressure cylinder saddle, 

■ Fig. 152. A transverse section through the low- 
pressure cylinder saddle XYandWZ. Section XY 
shows the passages for admitting live steam into the 
low-pressure cylinder, and section W Z the outlet 
passage from separate exhaust valve to the exhaust 
pipe. 



3i8 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 



35y 




1' IJ 






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320 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

^^S- 153- A vertical section through the low- 
pressure cylinder saddle and intercepting valve, show- 
ing the intercepting and separate exhaust valves in 
the position taken v/hen engine is working simple. 

Fig. 154. The same section as Fig. 153, but shows 
the position of the intercepting and separate exhaust 
valves, when the engine is working compound. With 
the arrangement of valves shown in these figures the 
engine can be started and run either compound or 
simple, and can be changed from compound to simple, 
or from simple to compound, at the will of the 
engineer. 

General Description. As the throttle is opened, steam 
from the boiler, through the dry pipe, is admitted 
directly to the high-pressure steam chest, and at the 
same time to chamber E, surrounding the reducing 
valve L, Figs. 153 and 154. 

The exhaust from the high-pressure cylinder, by 
means of the receiver pipe, passes to chamber sur- 
rounding the intercepting valve, and thence to the low- 
pressure steam chest when working compound, 
intercepting valve in position shown in Fig. 154, or to 
the atmosphere, through separate exhaust valve and 
stack, when working simple, valve in position shown 
in Fig. 153. 

The low-pressure exhaust passes directly to the stack 
at all times. 

The intercepting valve opens and closes the connec- 
tion between the two cylinders. 

The separate exhaust valve opens and closes the 
connection between the high-pressure cylinder and the 
atmosphere. 

The function of the reducing valve, which operates 
only when the engine is working simple, or starting. 



;OMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 



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LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




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Is) 

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COMPOUND LOCO:\IOTIVEb 32^ 

is to control the admission of steam from the boiler to 
the low-pressure cylinder, in order that the pressure of 
steam admitted to the low-pressure cylinder shall have 
the same ratio to the steam in the high-pressure cylin- 
der as the volume of the high-pressure cylinder is to 
the volume of the low-pressure cylinder. 

The oil dash pot insures a steady movement of the 
intercepting valve. 

The intercepting and reducing valves operate auto- 
matically by means of the steam pressure acting on 
the difference of areas of the ends of the valves. The 
movement of the reducing valve is cushioned by the 
small air dash pots shown. The separate exhaust 
valve is operated by the engineer, by means of a three- 
way cock in the cab. To open the separate exhaust 
valve, the handle of the three-way cock is moved to 
the position^ provided for admitting pressure against 
the piston A, Fig. 153. Moving the handle in the 
opposite direction relieves the pressure against A, and 
the spring, which is shown in the figure, shuts the 
valve. The separate exhaust valve can be so con- 
nected as to operate either by air or steam. 

Operation, Starting Simple. The handle of the three- 
way cock in the cab is moved by the engineer so as to 
admit pressure through the pipe D against the piston 
A, forcing it and the valves B and C to the position 
shown in Fig. 153. As the throttle is opened, steam 
is admitted directly from the boiler into the passage 
E, forcing the intercepting valve into the position 
shown (Fig. 153), thence the steam passes through the 
intercepting valve by the ports K K, and the passage 
G G, through the reducing valve to the low-pressure 
steam chest; at the same time steam from the boiler is 
admitted directly, by means of the steam pipe, to the 



^3 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




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COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 



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,zH LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

high-pressure steam chest. The exhaust from the 
high-pressure cylinder passes to the atmosphere by 
means of the receiver passage H and the separate 
exhaust valve B. Steam from the low-pressure cylin- 
der is exhausted directly to the atmosphere. 

To Change from Simple to Compound. Having started 
simple, to change to compound, the handle of the 
three-way cock in cab is turned so that pressure is 
released from the piston A. The separate exhaust 
valve will then be closed by the spring I, The. pres- 
sure in the receiver, due to the exhaust from the high- 
pressure cylinder, will rise and force the intercepting 
valve to the left, that is, to the position shown in Fig. 
154, thereby opening the passage for the exhaast 
steam, from the high-pressure cylinder, through the 
receiver, to low-pressure steam chest. The movement 
of the intercepting valve to the left also closes the 
passage G G, thereby shutting off the admission of 
steam directly from the boiler to the low-pressure 
steam chest. 

Starting Compound. To start the engine compound 
the separate exhaust valve is left closed as in Fig. 154. 
As the throttle is opened the steam pressure in the 
passage E will force the intercepting valve to the right 
or to the closed position; at the same time steam 
directly from the boiler will be admitted to low- 
pressure steam chest through ports K K and passage 
G G. The high-pressure cylinder will exhaust into the 
receiver until the pressure is sufficient to force the 
intercepting valve to the left, as shown in Fig. 154, 
when the engine will work compound. The change 
to compound working, takes place at from one-half to 
three-quarters of a revolution of the driving wheels. 

Compound to Simple. With the engine working com- 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES ^27 

pound, if the engineer wishes to run the engine simple 
to prevent stalling on a heavy grade, the handle of the 
three-way cock should be placed in same position as 
for starting simple. This opens first the small bleed- 
ing valve C, Figs. 153 and 154, and then the separate 
exhaust valve. The bleeding valve relieves the pres- 
sure and thus permits the main valve B to be operated 
more easily. As soon as the separate exhaust valve is 
open, the pressure in the receiver drops and the inter- 
cepting valve is forced against the seat to the right, by 
means of the pressure in chamber E, and the engine 
works simple as before. Engines should be worked 
simple no longer than absolutely necessary. 

Lubrication. A pipe from the sight feed lubricator 
located in the cab leading directly to chamber E is 
provided, by means of which both the intercepting and 
reducing valves are lubricated. One drop per minute 
is sufficient for these parts. A small oil cock in three- 
way cock, located in cab, provides for lubricating the 
separate exhaust valve and attendant parts, and oiling 
once a day with a small quantity of cylinder oil pro- 
vides sufficient lubrication. 

When using steam it is good practice to feed about 
two-thirds of allowance of cylinder lubrication to H.-P. 
cylinder. When drifting down long grades this should 
be reversed, on account of the larger surface to be 
lubricated on L.-P. side. Always run with lubricator 
steam valve wide open. 

By-Pass Valves. Some of the compound locomotives 
recently built are equipped with by-pass valves, pro- 
vided to admit of engines drifting more freely. These 
valves, more particularly on the low-pressure side, 
should be examined occasionally, by removing the 
cap, to insure that they are in good working order. 



.^28 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 329 

On new engines the by-pass valves should be cleaned 
frequently, as their free movement is liable to be hin- 
dered by gumming or the presence of core sand. 

Should a by-pass valve become broken or in any way 
defective, take off the valve body and insert a blind 
gasket between it and the cylinder. 

Carrying Water. Most of the later compound loco- 
motives are equipped with piston valves, and it is very 
necessary that the cylinders should be kept free from 
water. Great care should be taken to open cylinder 
cocks when starting and before opening throttle after 
drifting down grade. Careful attention should also be 
given to avoid carrying water too high in boiler. 
Carrying water high in the boiler, and thus causing 
wet steam in cylinders, is injurious to compound loco- 
motives, no matter whether slide valves or piston 
valves are used. 

Oil Dash Pot. This should be kept full of oil, to pre- 
vent intercepting valve from slamming. Breakages of 
intercepting valves are nearly always due to neglect of 
this rule. 

Dash pots should be filled with common car or engine 
oil, thinned with kerosene when necessary, in winter. 

The dash pot stufifing boxes should be kept packed, 
to avoid leakage of oil. 

Drifting. In drifting, the three-way cock should be 
in simple position whenever it can be done without too 
much loss of air by leakage of separate exhaust valve 
or piping. Most of the recent compound locomotives 
are provided with a small drifting valve, in main throt- 
tle valve, so arranged that it can be opened with a 
slight movement of the throttle lever. It is consid- 
ered good practice to admit a little steam to cylinders 
when drifting, through this valve, or, if not provided 



35* 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




o 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 331 

mth a small drifting valve, by a slight opening- of 
main throttle. 

Examination. Enginemen should ascertain if sepa- 
rate exhaust valve is in good working condition before 
starting out with train, by trying the engine simple and 
Compound before coupling to the train. The separate 
exhaust valve should be examined at intervals, so that 
the spring and other parts are kept in proper condition. 
Should the engine refuse to move after the throttle 
is opened, it will usually be found that it stands on 
center on high-pressure side (in position to take steam 
on low pressure side), and it will be due to either the 
intercepting or reducing valve sticking, which is 
always the result of lack of lubrication for intercepting 
valve, or carrying too much water in the boiler. 
Which of these valves are sticking can be ascertained 
from the position of the intercepting valve stem. In 
starting the engine, if the intercepting valve stem 
extends clear out about /in., it. would be the intercepting 
valve, and unless some of the ports are broken a 
slight tap on the end of the stem, with throttle open, 
would send it ahead. If it was found that the stem 
had already moved ahead so that it extended out 
about 3 in., it would be the reducing valve. Usually 
one or two sharp blows on the intercepting valve back 
head, with throttJe open, will loosen it. In either case 
live steam would then be admitted to low-pressure 
cylinder for starting. 

Should the engine refuse to work compound after 
the three-way cock had been placed in compound 
position, and continue to work as a simple engine, it 
would indicate that the separate exhaust had not 
closed. This trouble can usually be traced to engine- 
men using engine oil for lubricating separate exhaust 



332 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

valve chamber, and can sometimes be overcome by a 
<lose of kerosene, which should in all cases be fol- 
lowed up with valve oil. 

Relief Valves. Combined pressure and vacuum relief 
valves on low-pressure steam chest and single-pressure 
relief valves on low-pressure cylinder heads should be 
set at 45 per cent of the boiler pressure, and the high- 
pressure cylinder head relief valves set at 20 lbs. 
above boiler pressure. 

Dampers. Dampers should be closed when drifting 
down long grades. 

Questions 

381. What is the principal object in the compound- 
ing of locomotives? 

382. Name two sources of economy in compound 
engines. 

383. Why is there a constant loss of heat in the 
single cylinder engine? 

384. How is the expansion of the steam divided in 
the compound locomotive? 

385. How should the cylinders of a compound 
engine be proportioned regarding size? 

386. What other problems are before the designers 
of compound locomotives? 

387. How many types of compound locomotives are 
in use in this country? 

388. Describe briefly the Vauclain compound. 

389. What kind of an engine is the balanced com- 
pound? 

390. How are the cylinders of the tandem compound 
located? 

391. How many cylinders has the cross compound? 

392. What kind of valve gear is used on compound 
locomotives? 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 333 

393. What were some of the objects aimed at in 
designing the Vauclain compound? 

394. How many and what type of valves are used on 
the Vauclain compound? 

395. What kind of packing rings are used on this 
valve? 

396. When is the Vauclain valve motion direct 
acting? 

397. When is it indirect? 

398. In setting these valves, what ports are to be 
considered? 

399. Of what material are the pistons made? 

400. In starting these engines with full trains, what 
is necessary? 

401. How is this accomplished? 

402. What is the starting valve, and what is its 
function? 

403. How is it operated? 

404. What, rule should be. observed regarding this 
valve? 

405. What provision is maae for taking care of water 
that finds its way into the cylinders? 

406. What is the first thing an engineer should learn, 
in the operation of a compound locomotive? 

407. How is the quadrant of the Vauclain compound 
made, with reference to point of cut-off? 

408. What rules should be observed when starting 
the Vauclain compound ? 

409. When should the reverse lever not be hooked 
up? 

410. Should the starting devnce be used when the 
train is in motion? 

411. When is it allowable to use the starting device 
while the train is in motion? 



334 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

412. How should the fire be carried in the Vauclain 
compound? 

413. Where is the most economical point of cut-off 
for a single expansion engine? 

414. Where is the most economical point of cii*:-off 
for a compound locomotive? 

415. What shou^vil be done when startin'^ T?oVau- 
clain compound? 

416. What should be done with the rev ?e lever as 
the speed of the engine increases? 

417. What should be done on a slightiy descending 
grade? 

418. What should be the position o;: tne starting 
valve lever, when throttle is closed? 

419. If there is danger of stallLi^ on a heavy up- 
grade what should be done? 

420. What is one of the legitimate advantages of the 
compound locomotive? 

421. What advantage has the boiler of a compound 
locomotive over the boiler of a simple engine? 

422. What is the ideal type of engine, whether sta- 
tionary or locomotive? 

423. How may this ideal be reached? 

424. What has always been a serious problem for 
locomotive builders? 

425. How are the cylinders of the Baldwin balanced 
compound located? 

426. What type of valve is used on these engines? 

427. Where are the valves located? 

428. Where are the high-pressure cylinders lo- 
cated ? 

429. At what angle are the cranks set? 

430. Describe briefly the action of the steam in this 
tngine. 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES 335 

431. How are the cylinders of the American Loco- 
motive Company's balanced compound located? 

432. How is a uniform turning moment attained in 
this engine? 

433. Mention the advantages that the balanced com- 
pound possesses over other types of compound loco- 
motives. 

434. Why does the tandem compound appear to be 
the ideal locomotive? 

435. What is one of the main objections to this type 
of compound locomotive? 

436. What kind of handling does a compound engine 
require? 

437. What knowledge is necessary for the engineer 
in order that he may successfully operate a compound 
engine? 

438. What can be said regarding the tandem com- 
pound built by the American Locomotive Co.? 

439. How are the valves arranged on this engine? 

440. What is the function of the starting valve? 

441. How should a compound, locomotive be 
lubricated ? 

442. How are the cylinders placed in the Baldwin 
tandem compound? 

443. What about the cylinders and valve chests of 
this engine? 

444. What kind of a valve has this engine? 

445. How many cylinders has a cross compound, and 
how are they located? 

446. What is the purpose of the intercepting valve? 

447. What is the function of the automatic reducing 
valve? 

448. How is the steam for operating these valves 
supplied? 



336 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

449. How is the receiver pressure governed? 

450. What are the by-pass valves for? 

451. What precautions should be observed regard- 
ing water on these engines? 

452. What about the oil dash pot? 

453. What should be done when drifting? 

454. What should be done with the separate exhaust 
valve? 

455. Should the engine refuse to move when the 
throttle is opened, what would be the probable cause? 

456. How may it be ascertained which one of these 
valves is stuck? 

457. How may the stuck valve be loosened? 

458. In what position should the dampers be when 
drifting? 



CHAPTER IX 

INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, POP VALVES AND 
OTHER FITTINGS 

Injectors. The proper method of feeding water to a 
boiler while in operation under a high pressure, is a 
problem that demands the constant and earnest atten- 
tion of the engineer, not only as a matter of personal 
safety, but the efficiency of the boiler depends in a 
large measure upon the manner in which the feed 
water enters the boiler. Theoretically the suppl}'" 
should just equal the demand at all times; that is to 
say, there should be a constant ingoing of water into 
the boiler during all the time that the fire is active, 
and the volume of water entering the boiler should 
exactly equal the volume of" water that is being evap- 
orated within the boiler. But these conditions are 
hardly possible in practice. Especially is this so in 
locomotive practice, where the service differs so 
greatly from marine or stationary service. The 
judicious use of the mjector on a locomotive is a sub- 
ject that engineers and firemen should study to famil- 
iarize themselves with. 

The importance of this matter is shown in the fol- 
lowing extract from the report of a committee of the 
Traveling Engineers' Association: *Tt would hardly 
cut any figure how careful an engineer might be in the 
handling of his train, with the skill he uses in regu- 
lating speed or in the adjustment of the throttle and 
the reverse lever, if the water was not put into the 
boiler at the right time and the right place. In our 

337 



338 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



experience we have knowxT almost remarkable results 
to be brought about in an engine's fuel performance 
by explaining this matter to engineers who perhaps 
had not given it the thought that the subject deserves.'* 
It will be noticed that the committee emphasizes the 
importance of "putting the water into the boiler at the 
, right time and the right place," if economy in fuel 
is to be attained, and this certainly Is a worthy object 
tor every locomotive engineer to have in view at all 
times. 

Now as to the "right time" for putting %vater into a 




Figure 156 
Original Form of the Giffard Injector 
locomotive boiler: A good time to use the injector to 
advantage is while standing at a station. To this end, 
n is the practice of some engineers when approaching 
a stopping point, to allow the water level' to drop 
below the normal point, thus utilizing the heat already 
stored in the water that is in the boiler to enable them 
to get into the station. When the throttle is closed 
for making the stop the injector may be started, and 
much of the heat that wo.uld otherwise be wasted at 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 339 

the pop valve will be utilized in forcing a new supply 
of water into the boiler. Another "right" time and 
place to use the injector is just after passing the sum- 
mit of a long hill, when the throttle can be eased off. 
This will prevent the pop from rising so freely on the 
down grade, and thus another source of economy will 
be taken advantage of. There are many other "right" 
times and places for using the injector, that an observ- 
ant and careful engineer will, by a little thinking, be 
enabled to figure out for himself. Much, of course, 
depends upon the kind of an injector a man has on his 
engine. If it has a wide range of capacities, and can 
be throttled so as to feed a very small jet without 
breaking, it may be used ai.nost continuously, espe- 
cially if the track is straight, and there are not very 
manyheaxy grades. The modern injector, as it is fur- 
nished at the present time by the leading manufac- 
turers, approaches very nearly to being a perfect boiler 
feeder for locomotives Ever since the time of the 
invention of the injector in 1S58 by that eminent French 
engineer Henri Giffard, and its introduction into this 
country in i860 by VVm. Sellers & Co., of Philadelphia, 
it has been constantly improved upon, and developed 
by various inventors and manufacturers, and it is 
to-day, .without doubt, the most simple, the most eco- 
nomical, and the best device for feeding water into 
locomotive boilers. As a short study of the philosophy 
of the action of the injector is not only useful, but 
should be interesting to engineers and firemen, a 
space will be devoted to this subject. The leading 
types of injectors and inspirators will also be described 
and illustrated. 

How an Injector Works.* How can an injector lift 

*Strk'laiKl Tj. Knea.ss,C. E., from Si^llei's' I lau.i-rxtok of Injectors. 



340 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

and force large volumes of water into the boiler, 
against the same or even higher pressure than that of 
the steam ?" 

"An injector works because the steam imparts suffi- 
cient velocity to the water to overcome the pressure of 
the boiler." 

This is a statement of fact; to explain the action, 
we will take up the important parts of the question 
separately. 

Why should an injector work? Let us assume that 
the boiler pressure is i8o pounds — that is to say, every 
square inch of the sheets, top and bottom, receives an 




Figure 156 
The Self-Acting Injector, Class N Improved P. R. R. Standard 

internal pressure of i8o pounds. If the thermometer 
is placed inside, it is found that both the water and the 
steam are at the same temperature, 379 deg. But the 
steam contains more heat than the water, because 
after water is heated, more coal must be burned to 
break up the drops of water to change them into steam; 
this heat is stored in the steam and represents work 
done by the burning of the coal. Steam not only 
exerts a pressure of 180 pounds per square inch, but 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 341 

also can expand eight to twenty-six times its original 
volume, depending upon whether it exhausts into the 
air or into a partial vacuum; water under the same 
pressure would be discharged in a solid jet and with- 
out expansion. Either steam or water can be used in 
the cylinder of an engine or to drive the vanes of a 
steam or water turbine, but one pound of steam is 
capable of much more work than one pound-weight of 
water, on account of the heat which has been used to 
change it into steam. This is easily seen by compar- 
ing the velocities of discharge from a steam nozzle and 
a water nozzle under 180 pounds pressure; steam would 
expand while issuing, reaching at the end of the nozzle 
a velocity of about 3600 feet per second, while the 
water, having no expansion, would have a velocity of 
only 164 feet per second, about 2V of «^hat of the 
steam. The same weight of steam discharging per 
second would therefore have vastly more power for 
doing work than the water jet. ' 

If a steam or water jet comes in contact with a body 
in front of it, the tendency is to drive the body for- 
ward. The force which tends to move the body is 
called "momentum," and is equal to the weight of 
water or steam discharged by the jet in one second, 
multiplied by its velocity per second. If i pound of 
both the water and the steam are discharged per 
second, the "momentum" of the steam jet is 3600; 
because I multiplied by 3600 = 3600; the momentum 
of the water jet is 164, If the water jet discharged 
about twenty-two pounds per second, its momentum 
would be the same as that of the steam, because 22 
multiplied by 164 is nearly 3600. The two jets are dis- 
charged under the same pressure, but the steam has 
twenty-two times as much "momentum" or force as 



342 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



the water jet; it could, therefore, easily enter a boiler 
at i8o pounds pressure if we could reduce it to the size 
of the hole of the water nozzle.. 

How ought an injector to work? Here a practical 
difficulty is reached. A steam jet 6 in. from the noz- 
zle is much larger than at the opening, and it would 
appear almost impossible to make it enter a smaller 
tube. Even at the narrowest part of the nozzle it is 
more than sixteen times larger in diameter than a 




Figure 15/ 
The Self-Actixg Ixjector, Class M Improved 

water jet discharging the same weight per second; 
therefore, if the steam is changed to water without 
reducing its velocity, it would pass through a hole one- 
sixteenth the diameter of the "steam nozzle'' at a 
velocity of 3600 feet per second. The simplest and 
best way to reduce its size is to condense it, and to 
use water for this purpose, especially as water is 
needed in the boiler. To condense the steam and 
utilize its velocity, the water must be brought into 
close contact with it, without interfering with the 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 343 

direct line of discharge; a funnel or "combining tube" 
suitably placed will compel water to enter evenly all 
around the steam jet. The mouth of this funnel must 
not be too large, or too much water will enter and 
swamp the jet; if too small, insufficient water will 
enter to condense the steam. The effect of condens- 
ing the steam is to reduce the diameter of the jet; 
therefore the funnel or combining tube must be a 
smooth, converging taper, to lead the combined jet of- 
water and condensed steam into the smaller hole of 
the delivery tube. The effect of the impact of the 
steam is to give the water its momentum, so that a 
solid stream shall issue from the lower end of the tube. 
Each little drop of entering water is driven ahead faster 
and faster by the vast number of little atoms of steam 
moving hundreds of times as rapidly, until the steam 
and water thoroughly combine into one swiftly-moving 
jet of Avater and condensed steam, which contracts suffi- 
ciently in diameter to enter the smaller delivery tube. 

Why does the jet enter the boiler? The combined 
jet now passes from the end of the combining tube into 
the delivery tube; why does it enter the boiler? 

If a pipe shaped like a fire-hose nozzle or a "delivery 
tube" is connected to a tank or boiler carrying 180 
pounds, tiie water will issue in a solid jet with a 
velocity of about 164 feet per second; or, if we could 
force water into the tube at a speed of 164 feet per 
second at the same part of the tube, this water would 
enter and fill up the boiler or tank against 180 pounds 
pressure. Therefore to enter the boiler the combined 
jet of water and steam issuing from the combining tube 
must have a velocity of at least 164 feet per second. 

Now, what is the velocity of the combined jet at the 
lower end of the combining tube? If the steam nozzle 



344 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

discharges one pound per second at 3600 feet velocity, 
the momentum of the steam is i multiplied by 3600, or 
3600. If Ihe vacuum caused by the condensalion of 
the steam lifts and draws into the combining tube ten 
pounds of water per second at a velocity of forty feet, 
its momentum is 400; and that of the combined jet is 
3600 added to 400, or 4000. The w^eight of the com- 
bined jet is eleven pounds, and at the time of entering 
the delivery tube its velocity ought to be equal to 4000 
divided by 11, or 366 feet per second; but as the water 
and the steam do not meet in precisely the line of dis- 
charge there is a loss of momentum, and the velocity 
in the delivery tube is only 198 feet per second. But 
the jet only needs a velocity of 164 feet to enter the 
boiler or tank carrying 180 pounds pressure, therefore 
the actual jet in the delivery tube is able to overcome a 
pressure of 206 pounds per square inch, or twenty-six 
pounds above that of the steam, because the velocity 
of a jet of water under a head or pressure of 206 pounds 
would be 198 feet per second. This excess is more 
than sufficient to overcome the friction of the delivery 
piping and the resistance of the main check valve. 
Therefore: 

"The action of the injector is due to the high velocity 
with which a jet of steam strikes the water entering 
the combining tube, imparting to it its momentum and 
forming with it during condensation a continuous jet 
of smaller diameter, having sufficient velocity to over- 
come the pressure of the boiler.*' 

The Sellers Improved Self-acting Injector. Description. 
This injector is simply constructed and contains few 
operating parts. The lever is used in starting only, and 
the water valve for regulation of the delivery. It 
is self-adjusting, with 6xcd nozzle, and restarts autOK 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 



345 



matically. All the valve seats that may need refac- 
ing can be removed; the body is not subject to wear 
and will last a lifetime. 

The action is as follows: Steam from the boiler i«? 
admitted to the lifting nozzle by drawing the starting 
lever (33) about one inch, without withdrawing the 
plug on the end of the spindle (7) from the central 
part of the steam nozzle (3). Steam then passes 
through the small diagonal-drilled holes and discharges 
by the outside nozzle, through the upper part of the 




Figure 158 
The Self-Acting Injector, Class N Improved 
p. r. r. standard sellers standard form 

Jcombining tube (2) and into the overflow chamber, lifts 
:he overflow valve (30), and issues from the waste pipe 
[29). When water is lifted the starting lever (3^?) is 
irawn back, opening the forcing steam nozzle (3), and 
:he full supply of steam discharges into the combinijig 
:ube, forcing the water through the delivery tube into 

[the boiler pipe. 

At high steam pressure there is a tendency in all 
injectors having an overflow to produce a vacuum in 



346 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

the chamber (25). In the Improved Self-Acting 
Injector this is utilized to draw an additional supply 
of water into the combining tube by opening the inlet 
valve (42); the water is forced by the jet into the 
boiler, increasing the capacity about 20 per cent. 

The water-regulating valve (40) is used only to adjust 
the capacity to suit the needs of the boiler. The range 
is unusually large. 



Figure 159 

Self-Acting Injector, Class M Improved 

special form, interchangeable with monitor, ohio, etc, 

The cam lever (34) is turned toward the steam pipe 
to prevent the opening of the overflow valve when it is 
desired to use the injector as a heater or to clean the 
strainer. The joint between the body (25) and the 
waste-pipe (29) is not subject to other pressure than 
that due to the discharging steam and water during 
starting; the metal faces should be kept clean and the 
retaining nut (32) screwed up tight. 

To tighten up the gland of the steam spindle, push 
in the starting lever (33) to end of stroke, remove the 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 



347 



little nut (5) and draw back the lever (33). This frees 
the crosshead (8) and links (15), which can be swung 
out of the way, and the follower (12) tightened on the 
packing to make the gland steam-tight. 

The Improved Self-Acting Injector is specially 
adapted to railroad service, as its efificient, positive 
action and wide range of capacities at 200 pounds steam 
render its application to high-pressure locomotive 
boilers very advantageous. It will work from the 




Figure 160 
Self-Acting Injector, Class P, Special 10| and 11.| Only 

highest steam pressures used on locomotives down to 
35 pounds steam without adjustment and without wast- 
ing at the overflow, and by regulating the water-supply 
valve on the injector it can be operated at 15 pounds. 
As it restarts instantly under all conditions of service, 
it can always be depended upon to force all the water 
into the boiler, so that the engineer can give his whole 
attention to his other duties. 

Sizes of Injectors for Locomotives.* In determining 
the size of injector required for locomotives, the size 

•From "Practice and Theory of the Injector." Wiley & Sons. New York. 



348 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



of the cylinder is usually taken as the standard^ 
although the diameter of the boiler and the kind of 
service for which the locomotive is intended has a 
modifying influence. 

Table 17 



Diana, of 


Size of 


: Diam. 


Size of 


Diam. 


Size of 


Diam. 


Size of 


Cyl., 
inclies 


Injector 


of Cyl., 
inches 


Injector 


of Cyl., 
inches 


Injector 


of Cyl., 
inches 


Injector 


9 


4x^0 


1 13 


5.% 1 


17 


n 


21 


9it 


10 


4/0 


1 14 


61 :' 


18 


8i 


22 


lOi 


11 


5^ 


15 


6i 


19 


Sit 


23 


lOi 


12 


5A 


16 


n 


20 


9i 


24 
25 
26 


Hi 
Hi 



t Use next size larger with specially large boiler. 

Table 18 

Improved Self-Acting Injector 

Maximum and Minimum Capacities, All Classes 

Gallons per Hour— 5 Feet Lift. (7^ Gallons = 1 Cubic Foot.) 





eo Lbs. 


Steam 


120 Lbs 


Steam 


180 Lbs 


Steam 


200 Lbs. 


Steam 


Size 


















Max. 


Min. 


Max. 


Min. 


Max. 


Min. 
345 


Max. 


Min. 


x^^s 


427 


158 


562 


208 


517 


500 


350 


5^0 


667 


247 


907 


340 


1027 


395 


1035 


455 


6i 


967 


358 


1320 


489 


1492 


568 


1516 


667 


1% 


1290 


477 


1755 


650 


1987 


757 


2010 


885 


8i 


1657 


613 


2257 


835 


2550 


970 


2587 


1138 


9* 


2070 


766 


2820 


1044 


3150 


1197 


3187 


1402 


lOi 


2535 


938 


3450 


1280 


3900 


1482 


3952 


1740 


IH 


3037 


1124 


4132 


1530 


4672 


1775 


4725 


2079 


12r«o 


3650 


1351 


4968 


1847 


5616 


21.34 


5700 


2450 



X Class N. Imp. not made 4i% size; only supplied in Classes L, M, and N. 

Things to be Remembered. With Locomotives Carrying 
High Steam Pressure (180 to 225 Pounds). Set the 

injector just above the top water level of the tank. 
At 8 feet lift, 200 pounds, the capacity is about 10 per 
cent less than the list. 

Cold water is best for the injector. Hot water 
reduces the life and efficienc3^ At 120 deg. the capac- 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 



349 



ity is about one-third below list given in the table. 
The range of capacities is reduced and no injector lifts 
as promptly. 

Use large suction pipe and tank valve connections. 
If the diameter is increased one size, the gain in capac- 
ity is from 5 to 10 per cent. 

Use large strainer with small holes. Small strainers 
require frequent cleaning. If the holes are large, cin- 
ders and coal pa s 
through and wear the 
tubes. If the strainer 
is too small, the in- 
jector does not give 
full capacity. Be 
sure that the gasket 
between hose and 
suction pipe is not 
squeezed so as to 
close opening. 

Suction pipe must 
be absolutely tight. 




Figure 161 



Any leak of air re- Locomotive Feed- Water Strainer 
duces the capacity for right- or left-hand side of 
and makes the over- engine 

flow valve jump. 

Delivery pipe and main check valve must be of 
ample area. If an injector gives high back pressure, it 
is using too much steam. If the delivery opening is 
too small, the power of the injector is wasted in in- 
creased friction in the pipes. 

Take good care of the injector. Keep all glands 
steam-tight, and watch carefully for leaks in the suc- 
tion pipe. Do not force the steam valve hard against 
its seat; close the valve gently. Start the injector in 



350 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



the same way; at very high pressure the delivery pipe 
is liable to burst if the lever starting valve is jerked 
open. Keep the injector clean and report at once if 
not working properly. Do not run with the water- 
regulating valve wide open all the time. 

List of Parts, Self-Acting Injector, 
Class N Improved 



1. Delivery Tube. 

2. Combining Tube. 

3. Steam Nozzles. 

5. Spindle Nut. 

6. Steam Stuffing Box. 

7. Spindle. 

8. Cross-Head. 

10. Water Stuffing Box. 

11. Follower. 

12. Packing Ring. 

13. Lock Nut. 

14. Follower for No. 10. 

15. Links. 

16. Packing Ring. 

19. Plain i^^^fj""" 
19a. Reduc. j gopP- 

20. Check Valve. 

22. Guide for No. 20. 

23. Plain i Unions for 
23a. Reduc. ( Iron Pipes. 



24. Coupling Nuts. 

25. Injector Body. 
27. Wrench. 

29. Waste Pipe. 

30. Waste Valve. 

31. Waste Valve Cam. 

32. Jam Nut for No. 29. 

33. vStarting Lever. 

34. Cam Lever. 

35. Pin, Nos. 38 and 

36. Cam Shaft. 

37. Washer on 36. 

38. Collar and Index. 

39. Funnel. 

40. Plug Water Valve. 

41. Regulating Handle 

42. Inlet Valve. 
57. Closed Overflow 

Connection. 



33. 



List of Parts, Self-Acting Injector, 



Class M Lmfroved 



1. Delivery Tube. 

2. Combining Tube. 

3. Steam Nozzles. 

5. Spindle Nut. 

6. Steam Stuffing Box. 

7. Spindle. 

8. Cross-Head. 

10. Water Stuffing Box. 

11. Follower. 

12. Packing Ring. 

13. Lock Nut. 



14. 

15. 
16. 



Follower lor 

Links. 
Packing Rin 



for N( 



10. 



IQ Pliin i Rings for 
io i A \ Copper 
19a. Reauc. ] ^-^^ 

20. Check Valve. 

22. Guide for No. 20. 

23. Plain j Unions for 
23a. Reduc. '/ Iron Pipes. 

24. Coupling Nut. 

25. Injector Body. 
27. Wrench. 

29. Waste Pipe. 

30. Waste Valve. 

31. Guide for No. 30. 

32. Jam Nut for 31. 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 351 

33. Starting L-ever. 57. Closed Overflow 

34. Cam Lever. Connection. 

35. Pin, Nos. 38 and 33. 73. Guide for Overflow Valve 

36. Pin through 31 and 34. 75. 

38. Collar and Index. 74. Heater Stem. 

39. Funnel. 75. Overflow Valve. 

40. Plug Water Valve. 76. Follower. 

41. Regulating Handle. 77. Pack Ring in 73. 

42. Inlet Valve. 78. Heater Lever. 

The Sellers* Self- Acting Injector. Class P— Sizes 10^ 
and 11>^. This is a special form of body, designed to 
be applied to the back-head of the locomotive boiler, 
with the starting lever and water regulating valve 
placed directly over the brake valve and within con- 
venient reach when the engineer is seated. The 
coupling nuts and sizes of the pipe are Pennsylvania 
Railroad (Sellers') Standard, but the branches are 
located so as to avoid the fire-door and boiler attach- 
ments. 

Hints to be Read Before Coji?iecti?ig the Injector. 

1. Blow out all pipes carefully with steam before 
attaching the injector, tapping the pipe with a ham- 
mer in order to loosen all the scale. 

2. When drip pipe is attached close to overflow of 
injector, it must be same size as given in table. 

3. Always use a dry pipe attachment to insure per- 
fectly dry steam. 

4. The diameter of the strainer should be large 
enough to give an ample supply of water even when 
some of the holes are choked. 

5. Keep all valves steam-tight; all leaks tend to 
increase rapidly, owing to the velocity with which 
steam passes through the smallest opening. 

6. Keep the steam pipe and chamber free from dirt 
and chips from the threads on the pipes, and the steam 
nozzles perfectly clean. The steam nozzle is the life 



352 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING ' 

of an injector, and should be maintained in best con- 
dition. If the injector is new and the lifting nozzle 
should fill up, remove from body as described. 

7. When grinding the steam valve, place a rubber 
washer over the holes leading to the lifting nozzle to 
prevent the sand from working into the lifting jet; 
this washer should, of course, be provided with a hole 
large enough to admit the plug on the end of the 
spindle; then screw the steam stuffing box rather 
tightly against its shoulder to insure its proper align- 
ment. Keep the steam valve perfectly tight. 

8. To remove lime and scale, immerse the tubes or 
the whole injector in a bath composed of ten parts of 
water to one part muriatic acid. Remove as soon as 
scale is dissolved. 

Emergency Methods of handling the improved self- 
acting injector (Locomotive Firemen's Magazine) 
The improved sjlf-acting injector in good working 
order is the most satisfactory boiler feeder that can be 
used, and fully deserves the confidence placed in it by 
careful enginemen. But there are times when even 
the best injector refuses to work. It may not be the 
fault of the injector itself; in fact, it seldom is to 
blame. Sometimes the trouble is due to careless han- 
dling, to the leaky condition of the steam valves, joints 
of the suction pipe and hose coupling; to cinders and 
dirt in the tank; and under such conditions many an 
injector is struggling, which not only reduces the effi- 
ciency and length of service, but finally prevents it 
from delivering water to the boiler. 

It is of course difficult to do much in the way of 
repair to an injector when out on the road; even the 
pipe-coupling wrench is apt to be missing, and few 
tool boxes have wrenches for the removal of the tubes. 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 35^, 

A special feature of the self-acting injector is that the 
combining and delivery tubes can be removed with 
ordinary tools, but when it is necessary to take an 
injector apart the leakage from the steam and main 
check valves makes the work very disagreeable; but 
when an injector does not work it is something more 
than aggravating, it is often serious, especially if the 
left-hand injector has not been used for some time and 
also refuses to start. Then is the time for quick think- 
ing and quick acting. 

Suppose that an injector suddenly stops working. 
Probably the tubes, hose, suction pipe or strainer are 
stopped up. The last two can probably be cleared out 
by closing the cam over the overflow valve and draw- 
ing the starting lever quickly; if the hose lining has 
become loose it will let the steam flow back and close 
up again as soon as the injectOx" is started, disabling 
this injector until a short nipple or coiled wire can be 
forced up the hose or a new hose obtained. If the 
next station cannot be reached before water is needed 
the left-hand injector must be made to work, unless 
the train is stopped and the injector and pipes thor- 
oughly examined. Treat the left-hand injector exactly 
as the right. Open the tank valve and draw the 
injector starting lever; if the water is lifted, but will 
not enter the boiler, set the lazy cock at half capacity 
and tap the main check valve on cap with hammer to 
loosen it in its guide; at half capacity, because at that 
point the injector gives a higher back pressure than 
with the lazy cock wide open. This will probably be 
effective. 

To Remove Tubes. The sectional views show very 
clearly how the tubes are held in the body. Uncouple 
the feed pipe from the injector and swing it out of the 



354 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



way; place a monkey wrench on the guide (22) for the 
line check (20) and unscrew; in some of the older pat- 
terns of injector it may be necessary to insert an old 
file or flat piece of iron, or perhaps two pieces in oppo- 
isite openings; at any rate, it can be removed quite 
easily unless the seats are heavily lined up. This 
draws out the combining {2) and delivery (3) tubes, 
which can be separated and carefully examined inside; 
here is where the trouble will usually be found, and 




COMBINED STOP and main check valve; 
by closing the stop valve, the check 
valve and seat can be removed without 
blowing off boiler. screw or flanged. 

Figure 162 

the impediment must be taken out without bruising 

the surface or bending the tubes. When the parts are 

replaced, test before recoupling the feed pipe. No 

steam should issue from suction branch. 

Frequently the cause of stoppage is the absence of a 

strainer in the tank or suction pipe, or due to the fact 

that the holes in the straining plate are too large. An 

admirable arrangement of fixed strainer is shown in 

Fig. 161 placed between the hose and the suction pipe 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES. ETC. 355 

Suppose that steam nozzles (piece 3) require cleaning. 
Stoppage of the lifting tube is usually gradual and is 
shown by a slow falling off in the working of the 
injector. These tubes are more difficult to remove 
unless a wrench to fit the hexagon is at hand. Some- 
times a large iron chip or heavy piece of scale is car- 
ried into the nozzle (piece 3) by the steam, due to 
carelessness when cleaning the boiler, but this is of 
infrequent occurrence. If this happens it is better to 
make running repairs to the other injector ana leave 
it for the men in special charge of injector repairs. 

At times the main check valve does not seat and all 
efforts to close it prove unavailing; if the line check 
valve has been omitted during repair, the water from 
ihe boiler rushes back into the injector. With injectors 
having no lazy cock, the only method of preventing 
the burning of the crown sheet is to draw the fires; but 
with the self-acting close the overflow valve by means 
of the cam, then quickly shut the lazy cock. The 
check pipe and injector body will then carry full boiler 
pressure until the roundhouse is reached, when rhe fire 
can be drawn and the pressure blown off. 

Leakage of air into the suction pipe is usually the 
cause for unsatisfactory working of the injector. 
Enginemen should be especially careful about this 
and always tighten the joints so that no air can enter; 
even a slight drip from any of the joints under the 
pressure of the water in the tank indicates a large 
enough opening to admit sufficient air to affect the 
working of the injector, especially when the water 
level in the tank is low. Another point is the tight- 
ness with which the cover of the manhole of the tank 
fits on its seat; if air does not enter freely upon the 
tcup of the water the capacity of the injector will be 



350 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

reduced, the effect being more marked at h'.gh steam 
pressures and long lift than under ordinary conditions. 

Lime and salts contained in the supply water coat 
the surfaces of the tubes; the accumulation occurs 
slowly, destroying the restarting feature, the prompt- 
ness of lifting, and reduces the capacity; this should 
be at once reported to the proper authorities. 

Inlet Valve (42). When the improved injector is 
deeding, the overflow chamber — the part of the body 
between the water branch and the waste pipe — is filled 
with cold water; if it does not feel cold to the hand 
the inlet valve (42) is not open and working properly. 
This method of surrounding the tubes with cold water 
tends to prevent the formation of scale, and this pat- 
tern of injector gives longer service in districts where 
the supply water contains lime than those that do not 
contain this feature. Crude oil introduced into the 
steam or water pipe softens the scale and is often help-, 
ful. Bosses on both the water and steam branches 
may be tapped for self-feeding oil cups, but all the 
joints should be tight. 

Maintain the injector in good working order. 

The Metropolitan "1898" Locomotive Injector, Figs- 
163 and 164, is a double-tube injector, composed of a 
lifting set of tubes which lifts the water and delivers it 
to the forcing set of tubes under pressure, which in turn 
forces the water into the boiler. 

The lifting set of tubes act as a governor to the forc- 
ing tubes, delivering the proper amount of water 
required for the condensation of the steam, thus 
enabling the injector to work without any adjustment 
under a great range of steam pressure, handle very hot 
water and admit of the capacity being regulated for 
light or heavy service under all conditions. 



INTECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 



357 




358 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

This injector will start with 30 to 35 lbs. steam pres- 
sure, and without any adjustment of any kind will work 
at all steam pressures up to 300 lbs. In fact, at all 
steam pressures and under all conditions its operation 
is the same. When working,, all the water must be 
forced into the boiler. It is impossible for part or all 
the water to waste at the overflow should the steam 
pressure vary. 

The injector is easily handled. The lever works 
very freely and can be handled without care, for there 
is no sensitiveness whatever in starting, as is the case 
with most injectors; consequently any one ■ can 
operate it. 

Regulation of capacity is an important, in fact indis- 
pensable feature of the perfect locomotive injector. 
With Metropolitan "1898" locomotive injectors the 
capacity can be regulated for light or heavy service 
under all steam pressures and with hot as well as with 
cold feed water. While most injectors will admit of 
the capacity being regulated with low steam pressure; 
and cold feed water, this injector is the first in.\.c 
admits of a successful regulation with steam pressures 
up to and above 250 lbs. and with the feed water 
heated. 

Model H Metropolitan "1898" locomotive injectors 
will interchange and fit the Monitor coupling connec- 
tions. Model H injectors, sizes 5 and 6, have same 
size body and interchange. Sizes 8 and 9 have same 
size body and interchange. Sizes 11 and 12 have same 
size body and interchange. 

The Model H and Model I types of these injectors 
differ solely in the pipe connections and the form of 
the main casing or shell. AH the parts for each are 
the same for corresponding sizes. 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 359 



Model I Metropolitan "1898" locomotive injectors 
will interchange and fit the Sellers coupling connec- 
tions. Model I injectors, sizes 6 and 7, have the same 
size body and interchange. 

The Metropolitan locomotive injector is manufac- 
tured by the Hayden and Derby Manufacturing Com- 
pany of New York, who furnish the following 
directions for connecting and operating it 

Pipe Connections. The injector should be located 
inside the cab, so that it can be conveniently handled 
by the engineer. It should be located with the over- 
flow nozzle about 4 in. above the top of the tank. It 
is necessary that the steam pipe and the openings in 
the main steam valve should be as large or larger than 
the inside diameter of the sizes of copper pipe given 
in the list below, so that the injector will receive a full 
supply of dry steam. The openings in the goose neck 
and tank valve should not be smaller than the size of 
suction pipe called for in the list below. 









Table 


19 




" 










Capacity per Hour 


Pipe Connections 


Size 


Steam Pressures 


Steam 


Suction 


Delivery 


Overflow 




160 Pounds 


210 PonnHs 


Iron 


Copper 


Iron 


Copper 


Iron 


Copper 


Iron 


Copper 


5 


1180 gals. 


1210 gals. 


Wi 


IM 


IV2 


IM 


m 


m 


IM 


IK 


6 


1605 gals. 


1647 gals. 


IM 


Wi 


IM 


IM 


IH 


IM 


m 


IK 


7 


2095 gals . 


2151 gals. 


^Yi 


\H 


1>^ 


IM 


IK 


1 


IH 


IK 


8 


2651 gals. 


2723 gals. 


2 


2 


2 


2>^ 


2 


2 


W2 


\% 


9 


2954 gals. 


3034 gals. 


2 


2 


2 


234 


2 


2 


Wi 


m 


10 


3961 gals. 


4068 gals. 


2 


2K 


2Vi 


2H 


2 


2J€ 


2 


2K 


11 


4700 gals. 


4810 gals. 


21^ 


2'M 


3 


3H 


2^ 


2H 


2 


2H 


12 


5700 gals. 1 5950 gals. 

i 


2>^ 


2H 


3 


3K 


2V2 


2H 


2 


2H 



Operatio7u To start the Metropolitan "1898" loco- 
motive injector, the lever, part 292, Fig. 164, is drawn 



360 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



back, lifting the auxiliary steam valve, part 213, from 
its seat. This allows steam to flow through the lifting 
steam jet, part 224, into the lifting combining tube, 
part 225, thereby creating a vacuum in the suction 
chamber, causing the water to flow through the lifting 
combining tube, part 225, condensing the steam, then 
out through the overflow valve, part 215, and through 
the final overflow valve, part 234, through the over- 
flow pipe to the atmosphere. A further movement of 




Figure 164 
Metropolttax "1898" Injector, Sectional View 

the lever, part 292, opens the steam valve, part 206, 
which admits steam to the forcing steam jet, part 207, 
which is condensed by the water which is in the inter- 
mediate chamber and in the forcing combining tube, 
part 208, creating a pressure in the delivery chamber 
of the injector, which is sufficient to close the over- 
flow valve, part 215; and a further movement of the 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES ETC. 



361 



lever, part 292, closes the final overthrow valve 
thereby turning the water from the overflow into the 
boiler, thus opening the check valve, part 210. When 
the injector is working, the overflow valve is closed and 
held to its seat by pressure equal to the boiler pressure. 
The capacity of the Metropolitan "1898'' locomotive 
injector is regulated by increasing or decreasing the 
amount of steam to the lifting steam jet, part 224, by 




Figure 165 

Swing Intermediate Check Valves, 

Exterior View 



means of the regulating valve, part 301. When this 
valve is wide open, the lifting steam jet, part 224, 
receives a full amount of steam, which enables the lift- 
ing apparatus of the injector to lift the greatest quan- 
tity of water and deliver it to the forcing apparatus. 
When this regulating valve, part 301, is partially 
closed, it will partially close the opening into the lift- 
ing steam jet, part 224, decreasing the flow of steam, 
which will decrease the amount of water lifted by the 
lifting apparatus. This arrangement has been found 



362 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

to be far better than the old method of throttling the 
water supply. It enables the injector to run steadier 
when working at its minimum capacity and also 
enables the capacity to be reduced more. 

To use the injector as a heater, lift the side links, 
part 286, by means of the small handle on same, and 
pull the links back until the pin, part 287, drops into 
the notch. This operation causes the final overflow to 
be closed and a small amount of steam can be ad- 
mitted, enough to heat the injector. When it is 
desired to operate the injector after using it as a 
heater, the lever is simply pushed in, which will place 
the injector in position to be operated. 

If the injector breaks or will not start promptly, see 
if there is a leak in the suction connection. If the 
openings into the tank are too small, or the hose 
strainer clogged, or the hose kinked, or the hose lining 
is collapsed, the injector will not get a sufficient sup- 
ply of water. If the injector will lift the water but 
will not deliver it into the boiler, see that the inter- 
mediate or line check valve, or the main boiler check 
valve are in proper working order, also examine the 
suction pipe for leaks. " A leak in the suction pipe, 
while it may not prevent the injector from lifting, 
will prevent the water being forced into the boiler. If 
the main steam pipe or the main steam valve are not 
of sufficient size, or if there is a leak in the dry pipe, 
the injector will not receive a supply of steam suffi- 
cient to force the water into the boiler. If the over- 
flow pipe is smaller than the overflow nozzle, there will 
be a back pressure, which will prevent the injector 
from lifting the water promptly. The overflow nozzle 
and overflow pipe should be kept free from lime or 
scale. This is very important. 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 363 

Repairifig. When the tubes become worn they 
should be renewed. The forcing tubes are removed 
by removing the check valve casing, part 211, by 
breaking the flanged joint. The lifting tubes are 
removed by removing the regulating center piece, part 
302. Should the steam valves leak they should be 
re-ground. Overflow valve, part 215, must seat tightly. 
If this valve leaks, it will cause the hot v/ater from the 
delivery chamber of the injector to be forced into the 
intermediate chamber and drawn into the combining 
tube, part 208, causing the injector to break. This is 
very important. 

The final overflow valve has a soft disk, part 249. 
This disk is made soft so that in case the valve should 
close on to any hard substance, it will not injure the 
valve seat. These disks can be removed very easily 
and are very inexpensive. 

Swing Intermediate or Line Check Valves (Hancock 
Pattern, Fig. 165). These check valves can be applied 
to any locomotive injector. 

There are no wings or guides to become incrusted 
with scale or deposit while the valve is open, which 
would prevent its closing, and the liability therefore 
of damage or delay caused by the vzlve failing to 
close is obviated. 

The Monitor Injector. (Figs. 166-167, made by the 
Nathan Manufacturing Co., New York.) The proper 
position of this injector is in the cab above the level 
of the water in tender, convenient to engineer. Should 
the Monitor have to be placed outside, it must be pro- 
vided with connecting rods extending into the cab. 
Steam should be taken from dome or highest part of 
boiler to insure best effects. 

Its Range. It does not waste water at overflow by 



364 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

ordinary variation of working steam pressure, but 
steadily performs its duty, whether the water-valve is 
wide open or throttled down until almost shut. 

Steadiness. It works steadily, whether the engine is 
running fast or slow; while reversing, applying brakes, 
and during ordinary stoppages. It is also capable of 




Figure 166 
The "Monitor," Exterior View 

running heavy as well as light trains, the quantity of 
water needed being easily regulated by the water-valve 
attached. 

Reliability. It is provided with an independent lift- 
ing jet, which enables the injector to start promptly at 
all times. This is a peculiar feature and very impor- 
tant, because it allows the injector to start as promptly 
after doing its duty as a heater cock, as at first. 

Flanged Monitors, Since 1885 the body of the Moni- 
tor has been divided into two parts, which are firmly 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 



36$ 



held together by a double flange securely bolted. This 
very convenient arrangement enables the interior parts 
to be taken out readily, for cleaning or renewal, when 
necessary, without injury to the injector. 

Recent Improvements. The steam valve spindle is 
provided with an improved patent j^oke stuffing boX: 
which makes it possible to place the threaded part of 




The 



Figure 167 

'Monitor," Interior View 



the spmdle outside the steam chamber, diminishing its 
wear. The packing can be adjusted and tightened by 
means of a large central nut, still preserving the sim- 
plicity and convenience of an ordinary stuffing box. 

The water valve has been provided with a double 
handle w?th index pin, which engages with notches, 
cut into the stuffing box cap, thereby keeping the 
water valve steady in any position against any jar or 
vibration of the engine. 



3fi« 



LOCOi\fOTIVE ENGINEERING 




INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 367 

Description of *88 Monitor, Fig. 168. This injector is 
a modification of the well-known locomotive injector 
of that name, and is designed to supply the demand for 
a lever-handled injector, and embody in a new combina- 
tion all the best qualities of the former instrument. The 
most prominent feature of the '88 Monitor is the facility 
with which it can be started and stopped by the new 
lever-handle attachment, or the single screw spindle mo- 
tion, whichever may be preferred. The quantity of water 
which the new injector is capable of throwing, will com- 
mand attention, and the range of its capacity, running as 
it does from 100 per cent at maximum to less than 50 
per cent at minimum, makes it equally applicable to the 
moving of heavy or light trains, as the case may happen. 

It will lift the feed-water 5 ft. at 30 lbs. pressure, and 
at standard working pressure, to a height not likely to 
arise in ordinary locomotive practice. 

Its pipe connections are the same as the other Monitors 
and interchangeable therewith, so that in the use of the 
new instrument, the old fittings, if they are good, need 
not be disturbed. 

The construction of the starting arrangements is such 
that the screw attachment can be readily substituted for 
the lever-handle, should the former method be preferred. 

Directions for Application. Place the injector above 
water level in tender. Take steam from dome, or high- 
est part of boiler, through dry pipe. This will insure 
the best effects. 

Instructions to Operate the Injector. With Lever 
Motion. To start: Pull out the lever a short distance 
to lift the water ; when water runs from the overflow, 
steadily draw back the lever until overflow ceases. 



368 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

Do not increase the steam supply after overflow has 
ceased. 

Regulate for quantity with water-valve W 

To stop: Push in the lever. 

With Screw Motioii. To start: Open the steam valve 
one-quarter of a turn to lift the water. When water 
runs from the overflow, open steam valve until over- 
flow ceases. Do not increase the steam supply after 
overflow has ceased. 




Figure 169 



Regulate for quantity ^vith water-valve W. 

To stop: Close steam valve. 

Note I. To grade injector: Throttle water by valv»„ 
W; if this is not sufficient, reduce the steam by push- 
ing in lever handle about x^alf-way, and in case of the 
screw motion, by screwing in the steam spindle about 
half-way. 

2. To use as a heater: Close valve H and pull out 
lever all the way, and in case of screw motion open 
valve full. At ^11 other times valve H must be kept 
open. 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 369 



3. The heater cock can be worked from the cab by 
means of arm A, adapted for the attachment of an 
extension rod. Arm A is held on the heater cock 
spindle by friction, and by loosening cap C it can be 
set at any angle to suit the most convenient position 
for the extension rod. 

4. The hole in the top knob K of water handle W 
indicates the position of the water valve. One turn 
of the handle fully opens, or entirely closes, the water 
passage. 

In either case, the knob with the hole in should be in 
an upright position. Intermediate positions of the 
knob K indicate corresponding openings in the water 
passage. 

The Little Giant Locomotive Injectors, Fig. 169, made 
by the Rue Manufacturing Co., Philadelphia, have 
been on the market for many years. This injector is 
simple in construction, and is not liable to get out of 
order. 

These injectors are fitted with a movable combining 
tube, operated by a lever which allows them to be 
adjusted to work correctly at different pressures of 
steam, and under the many conditions which injectors 
are required to work. 

Table 20 — Size and Capacity 



05 


Copper Pipe 


Iron 


Pipe 




Outside 


Inside 


Gallons of 


N.24 










Water 


OQ^ 


Steam 


Water & 


Steam 


Water & 


per hour 






Delivery 




Delivery 




4 


i 


i 


I 


f 


600 


5 


H 


H 


1 


1 


950 


6 


If 


If 


u 


u 


1275 


7 


i| 


If 


u 


u 


1800 


8 


if • 


If 


n 


1^- 


2250 


9 


n 


If 


u 


u 


2800 


10 


li 


2i 


ii 


2 


3500 



37« 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 371 



To Operate. Have the combining tube in position to 
allow a sufficient quantity of water to condense the 
steam when the starting valve is full open, then open 
the starting valve slightly; when water shows at over- 
flow, open full. Regulate the water by moving the 
combining tube. To use as a heater, close overflow 
by moving the combining tube up against the dis- 
charge, then open starting valve enough to admit the 
quantity of steam required. 

The Simplex Locomotive Injector, Fig. 170, has been 
designed to 
meet the se- 
vere require- 
ments of mod- 
ern locomo- 
tive practice, 
especially 
where it is de- 
sired that the 
instrument b e 
self - adjusting 
and re-s t art - 
ing. 

Attention is called to the largely increased deliver- 
ing capacities at the high steam pressure of locomo- 
tive engines of to-day. 

. This injector is of the "re-starting" type, and if the 
water supply should happen to be temporarily inter- 
rupted, the instrument will start again without any 
manipulation, just as soon as the water supply is again 
within reach. The instrument is also "self-regulat- 
ing," and requires no water valve regulation above 50 
lbs. steam pressure, to prevent spilling at the over- 
flow. Its lifting qualities are of the highest order, and 




Figure 171 

lunkenheimer '99 model standard 
Injectop 



372 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 373 

it may be relied upon to start promptly after doing 
duty as a heater. 

The throttling capacity is fully 50 per cent of the 
maximum capacity under ordinary variations of lift 
and of feed water temperature. 

If it is desired that the instrument be placed outside 
the engine cab, and operated by means of extension 




Figure 173 
The Hancock Inspirator, Sectional View 
rods, a quick motion screw attachment can be readily 
substituted in the place of the lever handle. 

The construction of the injector is such that all its 
interior nozzles and other component parts are easily 
accessible for examination and repairs. 



374 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



Method of Operating. To start: Pull out the lever. 

To stop: Push in the lever. 

Regulate for quantity by means of the water valve. 

To use as heater for the feed water: Close heater 
cock and draw out the lever. 

In starting on high lifts and in lifting hot water, puli 
the lever out slowly. 

In case a pipe is attached to the overflow, its inside 
diameter must under no circumstances be less than the 
inside diameter of the overflow nozzle. 

If the water inlet valve (part 19 of details) 
should leak and prevent the prompt lifting of the feed 
water, it will only be necessary to turn around key 35, 
so that the letter "S" (not shown on cut) on the square 
spindle-end will be "up." This will close passage 
"P," and permit the continued use of the instrument 
until valve ig can be repaired. 

The Simplex injector is made by the Nathan Mfg. 
Co. of New York, who furnish the following table of 
capacities. 

T\BLE 21 





Capacity in 


Inside Diameter of 


Outside Diameter of 


Size 


Gallons p'r Hour 


Iron Pipes, in Inches 


Copper Pipe, in Inches 




125 lbs. 


200 lbs. 


Steam 


Suction 


Delivery 


Steam 


Suction 


Delivery 


5 


990 


1140 




u 


u 


li 


U 


U 


6 


1260 


1440 




u 


u 


H 


1§ 


H 


7 


1830 


1950 




li 


u 


If 


If 


If 


8 


2280 


2580 




2 


2 


If 


2 


2 


9 


2880 


3240 




2 


2 


If 


2i 


2 


10 


3450 


3800 


2 


2 


2 


2i 


2i 


2i 



Lunkenheimer '99 Model Standard Injector. Figs. 171- 
172. This injector embodies in its construction all de- 
sirable features which tend to make an injector high 
grade and efficient. Under high steam pressures it is 
necessary to have a machine which can be operated as 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 375 



efficiently as under low pressures, and one which 
admits of sufficient range of work to cover all condi- 
tions of service. 

The construction is simple, manipulation easy, and 
the results attained show a high degree of efficiency. 
It can be started promptly, under most conditions, at 
all pressures from 30 to 250 lbs., and can be handled 
without fear of uncertainty of action, as it is not sensi- 
tive in this respect. It will work without adjustment 
of steam or water from 40 to 250 lbs. and higher, and the 
capacity can be reduced over 50 per cent at all points. 
This feature makes it especially suitable for severe ser- 
vice, such as is found on railroads, steamboats and high- 
pressure power plants, and in other places where the 
load varies and it is necessary to have an injector in 
which the capacity can be reduced within wide limits. 

The design of the machine is excellent, the parts are 
well proportioned, the operating mechanism which 
controls the steam and overflow valves is not compli- 
cated and is all contained within the body of the in- 
jector, and there are no outside connecting rods, 
usually found in machines of this class. 

Table 22. Capacities of the Lunkenheimer Standard 
Injector 



Size No. 


Pipe Con. 
Steam 
Suction 

Delivery 


Pipe Con- 
nections 
Overflow 


Maximum Capacities at Various Steam Pressures 
Feed Water, 76° F. Lift, 5 feet. 




1251bs. 


150lbs. 


1751bs. 


2001bs. 


2251b8. 


8* 
9i 
10* 
lU 
12^ 
13* 
14i 
15 
15* 
16* 


r 
1" 

w 
w 

2" 
2" 
2" 
2" 
2\" 


V 

V 

1 // 

11// 

2 1 // 

2" 


650 
835 
1110 
1485 
1865 
2320 
2780 
3430 
3820 
4640 


665 
855 
1140 
1520 
1910 
2375 
2850 
3518 
3910 
4760 


682 
876 
1170 
1560 
1950 
2440 
2925 
3610 
4000 
4875 


700 
900 
1200 
1600 
2000 
2500 
3000 
3700 
4100 
5000 


715 
925 
1230 
1640 
2050 
2560 
3080 
3795 
4200 
5130 



376 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

The Hancock Locomotive Inspirator. The Hancock 
inspirator consists of one apparatus for lifting and one 
for forcing. The original stationary type embodied 
this feature by incorporating two chambers side by 
side, connected at the top for steam, and at the bot- 
tom for water, so that it was apparent to the casual 
observer that each carried its own set of apparatus. 
The Hancock inspirator works successfully under the 
most severe conditions. With high or low steam 
pressure, on all lifts up to 25 feet, when taking feed 
water under a head, with hot feed water as well as 
cold, for all steam pressures and for all conditions, its 
operation is the same and it requires no adjustment 
for varying steam pressures. 

The lifting apparatus consisted of a steam nozzle 
and a combining tube. The throat of the combining 
tube being so much larger than the smallest opening 
in the steam nozzle enables it to increase or diminish 
the amount of water as the pressure of steam increases 
or decreases. As pressure of steam increases, the pres- 
sure in the forcing chamber or delivery chamber of the 
lifter is increased, enabling the water to enter the 
forcer combining tube against the increased tension of 
the steam from the forcing nozzle, thus enabling it to 
work from low pressures to high without any adjust- 
ment of either steam or water supply. The forcing or 
combining tube being made without any openings 
between its mouth and discharge end, permits of the 
steam and water combining up to a very high tempera- 
ture, the overflow being closed positively. 

The above described apparatus as made and used 
was provided with a separate valve for opening and 
closing the intermediate overflow in starting, and 
valve for opening and closing the steam to the forcer 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 377 

and the final overflow valve. While each was very- 
simple in construction and the operating of the in- 
spirator was easily understood, still for locomotive 
purposes it was considered that the functions per- 
formed by the valves above mentioned should be 
brought under the control of one operating lever. 




Figure 174 
The Hancock Inspirator, Sectional View 

To accomplish this, the Hancock locomotive in- 
spirator, Fig. 173, operated by a single lever, was 
evolved, and is made in different types to suit different 
connections. 

The present Hancock locomotive inspirator will 
work successfully with pressures of steam from 35 lbs. 
to 350 lbs. without any adjustment of either steam or 
water, and the prooortions are such as to increase its 



378 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

quantity of water from 35 lbs. to 200 lbs., this being 
about the average pressures carried on locomotives, 
and while its maximum capacity is at 200 lbs. the per- 
centage of decrease from 200 lbs. down to 160 lbs. is 
not enough to interfere with the requirements of the 
locomotive. It will lift water promptly on the highest 
lifts encountered in locomotive practice, even if the 
suction becomes heated or filled with hot water. 

It will take feed water at a temperature of 125 "" 
reliably with a steam pressure of 200 lbs. Tests have 
been made where the inspirator has taken water on a 
lift of two feet at 132° with 200 lbs. of steam and 
at 140° with 140 lbs. of steam. 

Regulation fro?n Maxi?nt^m to Mi7wnum. The regu- 
lation of this machine from maximum to minimum is 
accomplished b}^ simply reducing the amount of 
steam supplied to the lifting apparatus. 

As has been before mentioned, the combining tube 
has no openings between its mouth and delivery end, 
and it admits of a positively closed overflow; hence all 
water passing through the combining tube must go to 
the boiler and cannot escape at the overflow. This 
condition is possible on account of the two sets of 
tubes, the lifting tube acting as a regulator and gov- 
ernor for the forcer, hence requiring no adjustment 
from the lowest to the highest steam pressures within 
its entire range. 

Tnter?ial Arra7ige7ite?it. The intermediate overflow 
valve operates automatically, its only function being 
to give direct relief to the lifter steam nozzle when 
lifting or priming, and comes to its seat when the 
forcer steam is applied and is held there by the pres- 
sure exerted by the forcer. 

An observation of the internal parts of this instru- 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 



379 



ment, Fig. 174, will show at once the simplicity of its 
construction and the ease with which it can be repaired 
and parts renewed. 

Material. In the manufacture of the Hancock loco- 
motive inspirator the formulae used in the composi- 
tion of the material for the several parts have been 
selected especially for the service each part has to 
perform. The tubes and valves are made of compo- 
sition that does not contain zinc. Other parts are 
constructed of material that will produce the least 
wear with its companion piece. As with the high 
temperatures incident upon high pressure of steam, 
care has been taken in the selection of the composi- 
tion of parts that would work in harmony without 
abrasion. The bodies are made of a composition con- 
taining about 10 per cent of tin. 

The Hancock Inspirator Co. furnish the following 
table of capacities and sizes of pipe connections for 
type A: 

Table 23. Capacities and Sizes of Pipe Connections 





Capacity 


per Hour 


Pipe Connections 


Size 


Steam Pressures 


Steam 


Suction 


Delivery 


Overflow 




160 Pounds 


210 Pounds 


Iron 


Copper 


Iron 


Copper 


Iron 


Copper 


Iron 


Copper 


5 


1180 gals. 


1210 gals. 


13i 


Wi 


IM 


VA 


\M 


13^ 


IM 


m 


6 


1605 gals. 


1647 gals. 


lU' 


1}4 


I'i 


IH 


Wi 


Wi 


m 


Wi 


7 


2095 gals. 


2151 gals. 


Wi 


lu 


1}2 


i-^.f 


11'.-; 


m 


1V2 


IH 


8 


2651 gals. 


2723 gals. 


2 


2 


2 


2H 


2 


2 


iV2 


m 


9 


2954 gals. 


3034 gals 


2 


2 


2 


2H 


2 


2 


1^ 


1% 


9,^ 


3274 gals. 


3362 gals. 


2 


2 


2 


2H 


2 


2 


1'4 


IH 


10 


3961 gals. 


4068 gals. 


2 


2M 


2y2 


2% 


2 


2H 


IH 


m 


11 


4215 gals. 


4450 gals. 


2 


2H 


2H 


2?4 


2 


2M 


ly-j 


m 



Type A Hancock inspirator will interchange and fit 
trie Monitor coupling connections. 

Hancock inspirators, type A, sizes 5 and 6, have the 



38o LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

same size body and interchange. Sizes 8, 9 and 9^ have 
the same size body and interchange. 

Type B Hancock inspirator will interchange and fit 
the Sellers coupling connections. 

Hancock inspirators, type B, sizes 5, 6 and 7, have 
the same size body and interchange. Sizes 8, 9 and 
9^ have the same size body and interchange. 

The Hancock inspirators, types A, B and D, differ 
only in the. form of the bodies and connections. All 
internal parts are the same for corresponding sizes. 
All external parts are the same for corresponding 
sizes, except part No. 106 (connecting rod). 

Directions for Connecting and Operating. To obtain 
the best results, locate the inspirator with the overflow 
nozzle about 4 in. above the water in the tank. Take 
the steam through a dry pipe from the dome. Con- 
nections from the inspirator to the dome must not be 
smaller than the inside diameter of the size of coppei: 
pipe given in Table 23. The openings in the suction 
or feed pipe connections from the inspirator to the 
tank must not be smaller than the inside diameter of 
the sizes of iron pipe given in Table 23. 

Overflow Pipe. An ordinary source of annoyance 
very often occurs from the overflow nozzle or overflow 
pipe becoming filled up, contracting the openings so 
that the inspirator will not lift or prime promptly. 
Sometimes it occurs that when the overflow nozzle is 
all free and clear the overflow pipe is apt to escape 
the attention of the person doing the repairs or over- 
hauling the inspirator, and are reported not working 
satisfactorily. It is almost impossible to ascertain 
this without removing the pipe. These pipes should 
always be looked over and kept free. 

biter ?7iediate or Line Check Valve. The intermediate 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 381 

or line check valve in the delivery pipe should receive 
attention. The line check valve in the delivery end 
of the inspirator, in case of impure water, should be 
looked after frequently. When the inspirator is pro- 
vided with a swing check valve, care should be taken 
to keep this valve clear from deposits resulting from 
impurities in the water. 

Suction Pipes. Where iron suction pipes are used, 
especially if the pipe is in two pieces and connected 
by unions, they should be carefully watched to see that 
they are absolutely tight and well supported, as a very 
slight leakage of air will materially reduce the capacity 
of the inspirator, and if too large a quantity of air is 
admitted it will cause the inspirator to break. 

In General. It is very important that there should 
be ample steam and water supply to all types of the 
Hancock inspirator. It sometimes occurs that the 
inspirator will not work satisfactorily with the regu- 
lating valve wide open or at its maximum, but will 
work when this valve is partially closed or when at its 
minimum. This indicates clearly an insufficient steam 
supply. It may be due to the contracted openings in 
the valve next to the boiler, combination box, or too 
small dry pipe leading to the combination box, and 
should be remedied. An insufficient supply of water 
caused by too small size or restricted opening in the 
tank valve, too small opening in the goose neck lead- 
ing to the tank, too small area in the strainer, a kinked 
or partially collapsed hose, or leaks in the suction 
pipe, would cause the inspirator to break. 

Operation. To start the inspirator, draw the lever, 
part No, 137, Fig. 17-i, back to lift the water, then draw 
it back to the stop. When the lever, part No. 137, is 
drawn back slightly, steam is admitted to the lifter 



382 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



steam valve, part No. 130, through the forcer steam 
valve, part No. 126, to the lifter steam nozzle, part No. 
loi. The flow of the steam into the lifter tube, part No. 
102, creates a vacuum, and causes the water to flow 
through the lifter tube, part No. 102, condensing the 
steam, and out through the intermediate overflow 
valve, part No. 121, and through the final overflow 




Figure 175 
Hancock Inspirator, Type Composite 

valve, part No. 117, in the delivery chamber. A 
further movement of the lever, part No. 137, opens 
the forcer steam valve, part No. 126, admitting steam 
to the forcer steam nozzle, part No. 103, and to the 
forcer combining tube, part No. 104, creating a pres- 
sure in the delivery chamber sufficient to close the 
intermediate overflow valve, part No. 121, and open 
the intermediate or line check valve, part No. ill. 
The final overflow valve, part No. 117, will be closed 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 



3^3 



and the inspirator in full operation when the Izver is 
drawn back to the stop. When the pin in the wheel 
of the regulating valve is at the top, the inspirator 
will deliver its maximum quantity of water; to reduce 
the feed, turn the regulating wheel to the right. 

Regulating. To use the patent heater attachment, 
lift the connecting rod, part No. io6, until disengaged 
from the stud in the lever, part No. 131, then draw 
back the connecting rod to close the overflow valve, 
part No. 117. 
Draw the lever 
back to the point 
used in lifting. 
This will usually 
give all the steam 
that is required 
for a heater. If 
the amount going 
back is too large, 
regulate it by the 
regulating wheel 
to give just the 
amount required, 
as with the lever 




Figure 176 a 
The Hancock Main Boiler Check Valve 



in the position described all the steam blowing back 
would pass through the lifter nozzle. Thereby the 
closing of the main steam valve at the boiler 
becomes unnecessary. 

Type Cojnposite. The Hancock composite inspirator. 
Fig. 175, consists of two separate and individual in- 
spirators within one body or casing, which can be 
operated separately or simultaneously, as desired. 
Where it may be desired to locate both injectors on 
one side of the locomotive, convenient to either the 



384 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

engineer or fireman who has charge of pumping the 
engine, or on the boiler butt, available to both, the 
advantages of the composite are apparent. Owing to 
the limited room in the cab, it is generally difficult to 
locate both instruments so that they can both be oper- 
ated by the engineer and be equally convenient. 

It occupies but little more space than a single in- 
spirator or injector, and owing to its compactness it 
has been found that it can be located in positions 
where in the past it has not been possible to locate 
two separate instruments. 

It places both instruments directly under control of 
the engineer, and both are equally convenient to oper- 
ate, the result being that both instruments are operated 
and kept in good order. 

Each instrument has an independent suction pipe, 
delivery pipe and line check valve, thus enabling each 
to be operated independent of the other. 

In attaching the composite inspirator (either to back 
head or side of boiler), one steam valve, one steam 
pipe, one overflow pipe and one opening into the 
boiler are dispensed with, thus effecting a very con- 
siderable saving of material and labor which would be 
required with two separate instruments. 

The operation of the Hancock composite inspirator 
is the same as the Hancock inspirator, types A, B and 
D. To operate either instrument, draw the lever back 
until the water is lifted, then draw it back as far as it 
will go. To put both instruments in operation, start 
one and then the other. 

It is desirable to use a double check valve in con- 
nection with the composite inspirator. 

The Hancock Boiler Washer. Fig. 177. A perfectly 
simple and durable apparatus for washing boilers. 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. ^385 



Will either lift water from 15 to 20 feet or take it 
under a head. 

At a steam pressure of 100 lbs. the temperature of 
the delivery water will be about 120° Fahrenheit, or 
as hot as it can be conveniently handled. 

The hose or delivery end of the boiler washer is Irft 
blank, to be threaded to fit hose couplings in u»c, or 
will be threaded as desired. 

Table 24, Capacities and Sizes of Pipe Connections 



Size 


Capacity per Hour, 

Steam Pressure 

60 Pounds 


Pipe Connections 


Discharge Nozzle 

for end of 

Delivery Hose 


Steam 


Sue. and Delivery 


Small 

Medium . . . 
Large 


2200 gals. 
3900 '' 
6000 " 


f inch. 

1 

11 -- 


1^ inch. 

2 " 
21 " 


f inch. 
1 " 



Pipe Connections. For steam, suction and delivery 
connections, see above table. 

Place a globe 
valve in the 
steam pipe for 
a starting valve, 
and another 
valve in suction 
pipe for a water 
valve. 

If the boiler 
washer is to lift 
water, there 
should be an 
overflow or out- 
let pipe not smaller than o\\(t inch in size connected to 
the delivery pipe. Place a valve in this overflow 
pipe. 

Operation'. \{ the boiler washer takes the water 




Figure 176 b 
Sectional ViEvr of the Hancock Main 
Boiler Check Valve 



386 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

under a head, open the water valve in the suction pipe 
and then open the valve in the steam pipe. 

Vary the temperature of the delivery water by regu- 
lating the steam and water supplies with either the 
starting or water valve or both. 

If the boiler washer lifts the water, open both the 
valve in the overflow pipe and the water valve in the suc- 
tion pipe, and give steam with the starting valve. 

When water appears at the overflow, close the valve 
in the overflow pipe, and vary the temperature of the 




Figure 177 
The Hancock Boiler Washer 
delivery water by regulating the steam and water sup- 
plies with either the starting or water valve or both. 

STEAM GAUGES 

The theory and action of the Bourdon spring gauge 
has already been discussed to some extent, and will 
not be enlarged upon except to give some illustrations 
of the latest improved types of pressure gauges with 
which modern locomotives are fltted. 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 3*^ 



9 



H 
»^ 

t-* 

O 

o 

o 

< 

» 
M 
w 

CD 
Cl 

o 

% 




3^8 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



Crosby Improved Locomotive Pressure Gauge. Attention 

is called to the cut, Fig. 178, of the Crosby improved 
locomotive pressure gauge, showing the Bourdon 
tube springs and their mechanism. It will be observed 
that the tube springs are attached to the socket and to 
the tips, to which the lever mechanism is connected 
in a new way. 

The method prac- 
ticed is to have these 
attachments of the 
tube springs made by 
means of solder or 
other metal of low- 
fusing point, and, 
while this m a y be 
safe in all low-pres- 
sure gauges, or 
where in their loca- 
tion in use they are 
not subjected to 
great heat, yet it is 
hazardous where 
high pressures of steam are to be measured b}^ them, 
especially where there is liability of the admission of 
such steam into the tube springs. In such case the 
soldering material may soften, and under the high 
pressure be forced out, causing a leak and the destruc- 
tion of the gauge. 

In the Crosby improved locomotive pressure gauge, 
the tube springs are connected at each end with 
their respective parts by screw threads, without 
the use of any soldering material whatever, thus in- 
suring tight joints under all conditions of heat and 
pressure. 




Figure ,179 
Crosby Duplex Gauge 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 38^ 

In addition to the improved Bourdon tube spiings 
so employed, careful attention has been given to the 
lever mechanism which transmits th*. free movements 
of these Bourdon tube springs to the index. They 
have been designed and constructed not only to con- 
vey the full movement of the tube springs, but so that 
they may be renewed without difficulty in case of 
repairs or reconstruction. 

American Locomotive Gauge, with non-corrosive move- 
ment, Figs. 181 and 182. It is constructed of metals 
of superior quality, to withstand the constant vibration 
to which it is subjected. The spring is made of very 
heavy seamless drawn tube of superior quality. The 
connections are made of hard phosphor bronze. The 
movement is made with a wide faced sector which will 
outwear three of the ordinary sectors. The pinion and 
sector shafts are made of hard phosphor bronze, and 
the hair spring is made of bronze, making the gauge 
non-corrosive, rigid, and adding materially to the life 
of the gauge. 

POP VALVES 

Safety Valves. One of the prime causes of boiler 
explosion is the gradual and insidious increase of the 
pressure of steam beyond the endurance of the boiler; 
but to every boiler there is a limit of pressure within 
which it is substantially safe. This point should be 
ascertained by hydraulic test annually, and no excess 
of pressure beyond this limit should be allowed at any 
time. The only sure preventive is a safety valve 
which is all its name implies. The diameter of a 
safety valve is not a test of its efficiency. A valve is 
effective in direct proportion to its lift, other things 



390 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 





INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. sy 



o '^ 



CO 

3 





392 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



being equal. The higher the pressure of steam, the 
less will a common safety valve lift; at most, its lift is 
very slight, and with the increasing pressure of steam, 
the lift will not increase sufficiently to relieve the 
boiler under all circumstances; but the pressure can 
and may increase until an explosion occurs, while the 
valve is in operation. The common safety valve has 

much to answer for. 
Owing to the great fric- 
tion of its parts, it will 
not open until the pres- 
sure is above what it is 
set at; it will continue 
to blow after the pres- 
sure of the steam has 
fallen far below the 
point of opening; it 
wastes large quantities 
of valuable steam in 
operation. There are 
other grave faults, but 
these stated are suffi- 
cient to condemn it. Instead of standing guard over 
the boiler, a sentry has to be set over it, and should he 
by accident, ignorance or negligence, not properly at- 
tend to his duties, the boiler is without any safeguard 
whatever. Hence the importance of any device which 
shall reduce the danger to a minimum. A safety 
valve which is automatic, certain in its action, prompf 
in opening and closing at the required point of pres- 
sure, and which can be fully relied upon to relieve 
the boiler under all circumstances, is what is necessary. 
The Crosby Locomotive Pop Safety Valve. Fig. i86. 
Description of the Valve. The valve proper B B rests 




Figure 182 
sectional view 
American Pressure Gauge 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC 



m 



> 

O 
> 

o 

i 

X ■ 
> 

> o 
Q 




w 




314 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



apon two flat annular seats Y V and WW on the same 
plane, and is held down against the pressure of steam 
by the steel spiral spring S. The tension of this spring 
is obtained by screwing down the threaded bolt L at the 
top of the cylinder K. The area contained between 
the seats W and V is what the steam pressure acts 
upon ordinarily to overcome the resistance of the 
spring. The area contained within the smaller seat 

W W is not acted upon 
until the valve opens*. 
The larger seat V V 
is formed on the upper 
edge of the shell or 
body of the valve A. 
The smaller seat W W 
is formed on the up- 
per edge of a cylindri- 
cal chamber or well C 
C, which is situated in 
the centei- of the shell 
or body of the valve, 
and is held in its place 
by arms D D, radiating 
horizontally, and con- 
necting it with the body or shell of the valve. These 
arms have passages E E for the escape of the steam 
or other fluid from the well into the air when the valve 
is open. This well is deepened so as to allow the wings 
X X of the valve proper to project down into it far 
enough to act as guides, and the flange G iz for the 
purpose of modifying the size of the passages E E and 
for turning upward the steam issuing therefrom. 

Actio?t of the Valve zvhe?L IVorkifig tinder Steam. 
When the pressure under the valve is within about one 




Figure 184 
American Duplex Air-Brake 
Gauge, Westinghouse Style 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 395 

pound of the maximum pressure required, the valve 
opens slightly, and the steam escapes through the 
outer seat into the cylinder and thence into the air; 
the steam- also enters through the inner seat into the 
well, and thence through the passages in the arms to 
the air. When the pressure in the boiler attains the 
maximum point, the valve rises higher and steam 




Figure 185 
Crosby Spring-Seat Locomotive Check Valve 

is admitted into the well faster than it can escape 
through the passages in the arms, and its pressure 
rapidly accumulates under the inner seat; this pressure, 
thus acting upon an additional area, overcomes the 
increasing resistance of the spring, and forces the 
valve wide open, thereby quickly relieving the boiler. 
When the pressure within the boiler is lessened, the 
flow of steam into the well is also lessened, and the 



396 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



pressure therein diminishing, the valve gradually set- 
tles down; this action continues until the area of the 

opening into the 
well is less than the 
area of the apertures 
in the arms, and the 
valve promptly 
closes. 

The point of open- 
ing can be readily 
changed while under 
steam by screwing 
the threaded bolt at 
the top of the cyl- 
inder up for dimin- 
ishing, or down for 
increasing, the pres- 
sure. 

The seats of this 
valve are flat, and 
do not cut or wear 
out and leak so read- 
ily as beveled seats. 
The valve is made of 
the best gun metal. 

Directions. Setting. 
Screw the head-bolt 
which compresses 
the spring up for di- 
minishing, or down 
for increasing, the 
pressure, until the 
valve opens at the 
pressure desired, as indicated by the steam gauge; 




Figure 186 
Crosby Locomotive Pop Safety 
Valve 



INJECTORS, ^r:AM GAUGES, ETC. 397 

secure the head-bolt in this position by means of the 
lock-nut; for regulating the loss of escaping steam, 
turn the screw ring G up for increasing, or down for 
decreasing it. 

Caiitio7i. Care should be taken that no red lead, 




\$^A- "^mm^^mmA 




EXTERNAL VIEW 



sectional view with lever 
Figure 187 



Crosby Muffled Locomotive Pop Safety Valve 

chips, or any hard substance be left in the pipes or 
couplings when connecting the valve with the boiler. 
Never make a direct connection by screwing a taper 
thread into the valve, but make the joint with the 
valve by the shoulder. 

Repairing. This valve, having flat seats on the same 
plane, is very easily made tight if it leaks, by follow* 



398 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



ing these directions, viz.: With an ordinary lathe 
slightly turn off the two concentric seats of the valve 
and valve shell or base respectively, being careful that 
this is done in the same plane and perpendicular to the 
axis of the valve. The valve will then fit tightly on 





Figure 188 
American Locomotive Safety Valve 

ihe valve shell. If no lathe is at hand, then griod th^) 
valve proper on a perfectly flat surface of iron or stcv^,, 
until its two bearings are exactly on a plane and with 
good smooth surfaces; then take the shell and grind 
its seats in precisely the same manner; rinse both 
parts in water and put together, and the valve will be 
found to be tight; to ascertain when the bearings are 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 



399 



on the same plane, use a good steel straight edge. Do 
not grind the valve to its seats on the shell by grinding 
them together, but grind each part separately as 
above stated. 

The Crosby pop safety valve and muffler combined, 
possesses outside means for adjusting or regulating it 
under changes of pressure, without disturbing its con 
nections or parts. 

American Improved Locomo- 
tive Muffled Pop Safety Valve. 
This valve has many new 
features, one of which is the 
manner in which it is adjusted; 
both the blowing-off pressure 
and the blow-down are adjust- 
ed from the top of the valve 
without removing the muffler 
casing — sim.ply remove the 
small top cap. The blowing- 
off pressure is adjusted by 
means of a compression screw, 
the same as is used in all 
locomotive valves. The blow- 
down is adjusted by means 
of a hexagon nut just below 
the compression screw. This 
nut is connected by means of a yoke and standards to 
the relief ring, which is raised or lowered to adjust 
the blow-back where the case may require, the nut 
acting as a swivel. The same lock-nut locks both the 
compression screw and- the blow-down nut, as shown 
in the sectional cut, Fig. i88. 

The noise of the escaping steam is lessened by tht^ 
muffling device, as shown in cut. 




Figure 189 
Spring for American 
Locomotive Pop Valve 



400 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



Springs. These springs are made of the highest 
grade of steel, carefully tempered, and are ground 
square on the end. Each spring is tested to double its 
capacity. 

Crane's Patent Improved Pop Safety Valves. Fig. 
190. Their construction embodies a self-adjusting 
feature automatically regulating 
the "pop" of the valve; in other 
words, maintains the least waste 
of steam between the opening 
and closing points, an improve- 
ment which will be readily 
recognized, as there is no ne- 
cessity of readjusting to regu- 
late the "pop" on reasonable 
changes in the set pressure. 

This is more clearly explain- 
ed, as follows: In all pop safety 
valves it is necessary to have a 
"pop," or huddling chamber into 
which the steam expands when 
main valve opens, thereby creat- 
ing an additional lifting force 
proportionate to this increased 
area and greater than the force 
of spring, thus holding the 
\'alve open until pressure is relieved. Means must 
also be provided to relieve this "pop" chamber of 
pressure in order to allow the valve to close promptly 
and easily. This is accomplished by a self-adjusting 
auxiliary valve and spring, which are entirely inde- 
pendent of the main valve and spring; and to further 
explain their operation, the steam in "pop" chamber 
finds a passage through holes or ports into an annular 




Figure 190 

Crane Pop Valve, 

sectional view 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 40' 



space provided in the auxiliary valve or disc, and Dy 
reason of the light auxiliary spring, this pressure lifts 
*he auxiliary valve and allows the steam in "pop'' 
chamber to gradually escape, thus permitting a greater 
range in setting pressures with the least waste of 
steam and at the same time supplying a cushion or 
balancing medium, thereby pre- 
venting any chattering or ham- 
mering and affording the easiest 
possible action in closing. 

To change pressure, unscrew 
the top bolts and remove the 
cap, slacken lock nut; to increase 
pressure, turn screw plug down 
(to the right) : to decrease pres- 
sure, turn screw plug up (to the 
left), then tighten lock nut. 

Should the valve waste too 
much steam between the opening 
and closing point, turn the out- 
side pop regulator to the left un- 
til the desired waste is obtained. 
Should it work too close, turn 
regulator to the right for greater 
waste. 

Crane's Patent Locomotive 
Mufler Pop Safety Valve. Fig. 191,. this valve is 
made with the outside "pop" regulator conveniently 
arranged at the top of the valve, for quick and easy 
adjustment, and while the boiler is under pressure. 

Table 25 




Figure 191 

Crane Muffled Pop 

Valve 



Size Valves, inches , 

Dome Connection, inches 



3^ 
3 



402 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



The Kunkle Lock-Up Pop Safety Valve. Fig. 194. The 
pressure screw of this valve is made of hard tempereo 
brass and can be removed at any time without being 
troubled with rust. The whole of the valve is made 
of brass throughout, with the exception of the pres- 
sure spring, which is made of the best steel and is 
thoroughly excluded from steam 
or dampness, making every part 
of the valve adjustable and free 
from rust. The spring is set 
between two tapered points, as 
will be seen by reference to open 
view. Another point in its 
favor is the uniform bearing of 
the valve upon its seat by reason 
of its long ribbed chamber, 
which guides the valve so ac- 
curately as not to allow it to 
cap on one side, thereby pre- 
venting the steam from cutting 
away the seat. 

The valve with its regulator 
can be adjusted to go off sud- 
denly without a loud pop or 
without loss of boiler pressure. 
The Kunkle Lock-TJp Pop Safe- 
ty Valve and Muffler Combined. Figs. 194 and 195. 
It relieves itself of all over-pressure, without raising 
above what it is set at; will close down upon its 
seat without losing any of the desired or fixed 
pressure, and by means of its lock-up device, so 
ingeniously constructed, all unauthorized persons are 
prevented from tampering with it. It is provided with 
a pressure screw with the tapering point resting in the 




Figure 192 
Crane Muffled Pop 
Valve 
sectional view 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 403 

center of the top plate on top of the spring-, and is 
locked with a key, and a jam-nut holding it firmly to 
is place, which makes it perfectly safe from being 
tampered with. 





Figure 193 
Prindle's Patent Syphon Cocks 



LUBRICATORS 

In the "good old days,'' when tallow was the only 
known lubricant for the valves, it was one of the 
duties of the fireman on approaching a station or 
drifting down a hill, to seize the tallow pot and make 
a rush for the front end to oil the valves. This, with 
the weather at zero or below, was not a very desirable 
job, to say the least, and in course of time somebody 
thought out the plan of running pipes from the steam 
chests back to the cab, where they were fitted with a 
sort of funnel with a shut-off cock attached, and the 



404 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



melted tallow was poured in there, and the vacuum in 
the valve chests when the throttle was closed caused 
the tallow to find its way to the valve seats. But, 
thanks to progress and invention, tallow has- been dis- 
placed by refined cylinder oil, and the tallow cup has 

given way to the modern 



sight-feed lubricator; con- 
sequently the lubrication 
of the valves has been 
much simplified, for the 
reason that the oil is con- 
stantly entering the valve 
chests drop by drop as it 
should. Of course the 
lubricator may get out of 
order at times, or the oil 
pipes become clogged, but 
these are troubles that are 
easily overcome as a rule. 
A few of the leading types 
of lubricators will be il- 
lustrated and described. 

The Nathan New Bull's 
Eye Lubricator. Fig. 196. 
Gemral Features. The 
oil reservoir of the lubri- 
cator is of cylindrical form, which is generally ac- 
knowledged to be most suitable for high pressure. 

The lubricator is provided with hand oilers for the 
cylinder feeds, and with gauge glasses which indicate 
when the reservoir is nearly empty. 

The lubricator carries a reserve glass, packed in its 
casing, ready for use whenever occasion requires. 
All glasses are packed in c^.sings which screw into 




Figure 194 
KuNKLE Pop Valve 

FOR PORTABLE AND STATIONARY 
BOILERS 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 405 



the body, making their removal for inspection or 
repairs very convenient. 

Directions for Applicatio?i. i. Secure the lubricator 
to boiler head or top of boiler, in the usual manner. 

2. Connect for steam to fountain or turret, if large 
enough, otherwise direct to boiler. The steam pipe 
must not have less than f-in. 
I.D. when iron pipe is used, 
and not less than f-in. I.D. 
when copper pipe is used. 
Steam valves and their 
shanks must have openings 
fully in accordance with 
these dimensions. 

3. Oil pipes must have a 
continuous fall towards the 
steam-chest, without any 
"pockets" in them. 

Directions for Operation. 
Fill the cup with clean, 
strained oil through filling 
plug A, and immediately 
after filling, open water 
valve D. Open steam valve 
(not shown), wait until 
sight-feed chambers are filled 
with water, then start and regulate the feed by open- 
ing regulating valves C, more or less, according to the 
feed desired. 

To stop either of the feeds, close the respective 
regulating valve C. 

To renew supply of oil, close all valves marked C 
and valve D, draw off water at waste cock W, then fill 
the cup as before, and open water valve D, imme- 




Figure 195 
The Kunkle Pop Valve 

FOR locomotive BOILERS 



4O0 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



diately after filling, whether the feed is started again, 

or not. 

To oil by hand, 
close the steam 
valve. Fill the 
hand oilers O, 
open the hand oil' 
er valves, and 
when all the oil 
has entered the 
tallow pipes, close 
hand oiler valves 
and open steam 
valve wide. 

Notes. I. Al- 
ways open the 
steam valve be- 
fore the engine 
begins to do any 
work whatever, 
whether the feed 
is started right 
away or not, and 
keep it open as 
ong as the engine 
is doing service of 
any kind. 

2. Keep the water valve D always open, except 
during the period of filling the cup, as per direc- 
tion. 

3. Once in two weeks, at least, blow out the cup 
with steam, opening all valves wide, with the exception 
of the filling plug, which should remain closed. 

4. When putting on the lubricator for the first time. 




C C 

Figure 196 

front view 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 407 



or after it has been off for repairs, "follow up" the 
packing nuts of the glasses, when the lubricator gets 
hot, so as to take up any "slack" caused by expan- 
sion. This will tend to keep the joints tight. 

The Detroit No. 21 Triple Feed Locomotive Lubricator, 
with auxiliary oilers and gauge glass. Fig. 200. 

This device is simple in construction and simple of 
operation. 

The oil is maintain- 
ed at a uniform tem- 
perature and will not 
chill. 

The feed is abso- 
lutely regular. 

All feeds are vis- 
ible from two sides. 

An additional 
valve has been plac- 
ed at the top of the 
lubricator to control 
the supply of steam 
from the boiler, mak- 
ing the device self- 
contained. 

Directions for Oper- 
ating. When the 
lubricator is first ap- 
plied, blow out thor- 
oughly, then close all 
the valves. 

To Fill. Remove filler plug O and fill the reservoir 
with clean, strained oil. 

Steam Valve. The regular boiler valve should be left 
wide open, and the steam valve B at top of condenser 




Figure 198 

New Nathan Lubricator, 

Front View 



4o8 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



must also be kept wide open while the locomotive is in 

service. 

To Start Lubricator, i. Be sure that the regular boiler 

valve is open. Then open steam valve B at top of 

condenser grad- 
ually until wide 
open and keep 
wide open while 
lubricator is in 
operation. Al- 
1 o w sufficient 
time for con- 
denser and 
sight-feed glass- 
es to fill with 
water. 2. Open 
water valve D. 
3. Regulate 
flow of oil to 
right and left 
cylinders by 
valves E E, and 
to air pump by 
valve L. 

To Operate 
Auxiliary Oilers. 
See that valve 
H is closed. 
Then open 
X after filling- 




c c 

Figure 199 

New Nathan Lubricator 

side view with steam and tallow pipes 

Close 



valve X and fill body of oiler 
and open valve H. 

To Refill. Always close valves E E and L in 
advance of valve D. Open drain plug G, then filler 
plug O. Refill and proceed as before. 



INJECTORS, STEA:M GAUGES, ETC. 409 

Immediately after filling the lubricator do not fail 
to open the" water feed valve D, in order to prevent any 
excessive pressure due to the expansion of the heated 
oil. 

Getting New or Re- 
built Locomotive Ready 
for Service. In getting 
a new or rebuilt loco- 
motive ready for serv- 
i c e , disconnect o i 1 
pipes at steam chest, 
and blow out thor- 
oughly both oil pipes 
and automatic steam 
chest valves; also dis- 
connect coupling to air 
pump and see that 
choke is free. 

Steam for lubricator 
should be taken from 
turret if large enough, 
or from dome through 
an independent dry 
pipe of i-in. iron pipe 
size or its equivalent. 

When the No. 31, or 
four-feed lubricator is Figure 200 

applied to the Vauclain The Detroit No. 21 Locomotive 
type of compound, the Lubricator 

two outer feeds are intended for the high-pressure 
cylinders. Two automatic steam chest plugs are 
furnished, stamped and tagged "H.P.," having i^V-in. 
chokes. The two remaining feeds lead to the low-pres- 
sure cylinders, and two other automatic steam chest 




4IO 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



plugs are furnished to be used with them, stamped and 
tagged "L.P. " and havnng j\-in. chokes. 

Helpful Hints. Blowing Out. Blow out lubricator 
once a week. 

FillirLg. If there is not sufficient oil to fill the lubri- 





FlGURE 201 

Detroit 4-Feed Lubricator 

cator, always use water to make up the required quan- 
tity. This will enable the feeds to start promptly. 
The steam valve B must be opened wide when the 
locomotive is in service to allow condensation to enter 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 411 

the condenser; otherwise condensation will be diverted 
to equalizing tubes. The feeds will gradually slow 
down as the water of condensation decreases. 

When getting a new or rebuilt engine ready for serv- 
ice or when using soda ash boiler compounds, or when 
running in bad water districts, impurities will be car- 
ried over into the condenser and will gradually accu- 
mulate at base of water valve until the water is 
completely shut off. While this is taking place the 
feeds are affected the same as before described, and 
when this passage is finally closed by the sediment the 
feeds will cease altogether. 

How to rectify while locomotive is in service: Close 
all feeds and water valve; open drain cock 2105 and 
^llow about ^ pint of water to drain off; close drain 
cotk and open water valve quickly. The condenser 
pressure will then force this sediment into bottom of 
lubricator, where it can be blown out in the usual man- 
ner, when the lubricator is empty. 

Do not screw up too tightly the feed glass follower, 
as this will only serve to injui-e the packing. There is 
no danger of leakage at this point, as the glass and 
packing are so designed that the greater the pressure 
the better the joint. 

Small Drop of Oil. The cause of a small drop of oil 
or the variation of size of drop during a trip. In 
alkali, salt water or oil well regions through which 
railroads pass, the water supply becomes impregnated 
with saline matter. This saline matter is carried over 
in the lubricator mechanically by the steam, so that 
the water in the sight feed glasses contains consider- 
able of it and the amount increases as the locomotive 
proceeds on the trip until it crystallizes around the feed 
cones, thus gradually diminishing the size of the open- 



412 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



ing for the drop. Should the engineer undertake to 
force the feed it will result in the oil flowing in a very- 
slender stream, scarcely perceptible. If this condition 
is not corrected the salt crystals will completely close 
the feed cone orifice. 

How to Rectify. Close all feed stems; open all sight 
feed drain stems and blow out thoroughly. The action 

of the steam on feed 
cones will dissolve 
the salt crystals. 
Allow reasonable 
time for condensa- 
tion; start the feeds, 
and the drop of oil 
will be normal. 

Air Bound. This 
condition is almost 
invariably brought 
about whenever it 
becomes necessary 
to fill a lubricatoron 
the road. The tem- 
perature of a lubri- 
cator at such times 
is very nearly that 
of the steam pressure temperature. Sometimes the 
water feed valve seat may leak, and in order to fill the 
lubricator in this heated condition it is found neces- 
sary to shut off all steam pressure to the lubricator, 
including the air pump, and owing to the high temper- 
ature of the condenser the water flashes into steam, 
practically emptying the condenser and feed glasses 
of all water. The oil reservoir being very hot, the 
oil expands rapidly and the filler plug is usually put in 





Figure 202 
Automatic Steam Chest Plugs and 
Valves 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 413 

before the reservoir is full. The steam and water pres- 
sures are hurriedly turned on and the feeds are opened 
before sufificient time has elapsed for sufBcient con- 
densation to accumulate. The feeds will not respond 
under such conditions, because the positive and 
negative pressures have equalized, and the lubricator is 
said to be air bound. 

How to Overcome. Open all feeds and any one of 
the sight feed drain stems. This will allow the water 
in the oil tubes and the air occupying the high- 
est space in the oil reservoir to escape to atmos- 
phere. 

The New Nathan Triple Sight-Feed Locomotive Lubri- 
cator. Dtrectio7is for Applicatio7i. i. Secure the lubri- 
cator to boiler head or top of boiler by a strong brace, 
in some such form as illustrated. Fig. 197. 

2. Connect top of lubricator to dome, top of boiler 
or bridge pipe by copper or brass tubing, which must 
not be less under any circumstances than g-in. inside 
measurement. 

3. Connect the oil or tallow pipes to the union coup- 
lings on top brackets of the lubricator. The elbow on 
the top front bracket on right side is for the oil pipe 
to the air brake pump. 

4. Remove valves from plugs over steam chests in 
order to maintain proper lubrication when steaming. 

The sight-feed and gauge glasses of these lubricators 
are provided with proper shields and protectors, to 
prevent the flying of particles in case of a broken 
glass. 

Directions for Use. Fill the cup with clean, strained 
oil through the filling plug A, and immediately after 
filling, open the water valve D. Open the steam valve 
B, and start to regulate the feed by opening the regu- 



414 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




lating valves C more or less, according to the quantity 

desired. 

To stop either of the feeds, close the respective 

regulating 
valve C. 

To renew the 
supply of oil, 
close all the C 
and D vah-es, 
draw off the 
water at the 
waste- cock W, 
then fill the cup 
as before and 
open the wa- 
ter valve D im- 
mediately after 
filling, whether 
the feed is 
started again 
or not. 

Notes. I. 
Valves F F F 
must be always 
kept open ex- 
cept when one 
of the glasses 
breaks. In 

such case close valves C and F belonging to the broken 

glass and use the auxiliary oiler O on that glass on 

down grades, as a common cab oiler. 

The breaking of one glass does not interfere with 

the proper function of the others. 

2. Always open the steam valve before the engine 



Figure 203 
Detroit No. 21, Side View 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 415 

begins to do any work whatever — whether the feed is 
started right away or not, and keep it open as long as 
the engine is doing service of any kind. 

3. Keep the water valve D always open except 
during the period of filling the cup, as per directions. 

4. Once in two weeks at least, blow out the cup with 
steam; open the valves wide, with the exception of the 
filling plug, which should remain closed. 



MECHANICAL BELL RINGERS 

Locomotive bell ringers are no longer a luxury — 
they are a necessity. 

The duties of the 
lireman, who used to 
ring the bell, have 
increased with the 
increased size and 
speed of locomotive. 
A man furnishing 
coal to an up-to-date 
fire-box has little 
time to do much 
else when the ma- 
chine is in motion. 

The engineer's at- 
tention must not be Figure 204.— Detroit Lubricator 
ork Glass and Method of Packing 




GLASS 



w 

with DIRECTION OF PRESSURE INDICATED BY ARROW. 
THE HIGHER THE PRESSURE THE BETTER THE 
JOINT 



taken from his 
— cannot be 
safety. 

The Sansom Bell Ringer, Fig. 205, lays claim to the 
following merits: 

Has no packed joints except the piston, which has 
heavy, leather packing. 



4l6 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




Figure 205 
Sansom Bell Ringer 



INJECTORS, STEx\M GAUGES, ETC. 417 

Valve is a plug cock held to seat by a coiled spring. 
Economical of air, because weight of bell compresses 

air in the cylinder almost to lifting point before 

admission. 

Easily regulated to ring at any speed simply by con^ 

trol of air supplied. 

FITTINGS 

Patent Steam Sanding Apparatus for Locomotives 

Fig. 206. (Nathan Mfg. Co., New York.) 

Descriptioji. The ordinary methods for sanding the 
track in front of locomotive wheels being imperfect 
and unreliable, this apparatus has been designed with 
the view of obviating that difficulty and of greatly 
increasing the adhesive and tractive power of locomo- 
tive engines. This is effected by means of a combined 
jet of steam and sand projected to the point of contact 
between the driving wheels and the rails. 
The advantages of the apparatus are: 

1. The certainty of delivering sand at the proper 
point between the wheels and rails. 

2. Saving in sand by being able to regulate the 
quantity delivered according to existing necessities. 

3. Dispensing with rods and levers for working sand 
gear. 

4. Capab'lity of being applied to present sand boxes 
without any alteration. 

5. Simultaneous delivery of sand at the point of 
contact fox both wheels, whereby the liability to injure 
the crank, driving axles and coupling rods is greatly 
reduced. 

6. Additional train resistance avoided, as no super- 
fluous sand is left on the rails as by the old method. 



418 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

JO 




INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 41$ 





420 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



7. Economy of steam; there being no slipping or 
unnecessary revolving of locomotive wheels in starting 
engine. 

To obtain these advantages the following directions 
must be strictly adhered to: 

1. The sand must be absolutely dry and finely sifted. 
Stones cannot pass through the apparatus, but will 
stop its proper function. 

2. The cover of the sand box must be water-tight, to 
prevent the sand from getting wet by rain or snow 

beating in. 

Directions fo r 
Application. At- 
tach the sand 
trap to sand box 
or sand pipes by 
means of the un- 
ion couplings in 
the most conven- 
ient position; the 
plugP must point 
straight d o w n - 
ward and the air 
snouts must 
point in the di- 
rection o': the de- 
livery. 
Connect the ejector to sand pipe in such a way that 

the blast will strike in about the center between tire 

and rail. 

Attach the steam valve to dome, bridge pipe or other 

high place on boiler. 

Connect the automatic drip cock to steam pipe and 

make the steam pipe to incline towards the drip cock 




sectional view 

Figure 208 

Hancock Pneumatic Cylinder Cock 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 421 

in both directions, as illustrated. This will lead the 
condensed water, resulting from a leakage of the steam 
valve, down the drip pipe and thus prevent the freez- 
ing of the ejector pipe in cold weather. 

Branch off the steam pipe to the ejector on each 
side of engine at a point between ejector and drip 
cock. The standard connections are made for i-in. 
iron pipe for the sand traps. The steam pipe should 
be f-in., and connections on ejector and drip cock 
will be furnished blank or cut for |-in. iron, or drilled 
for -^-in. copper, according to orders. The bottom of 
the drip cock is tapped for J-in. drip pipe. 

The traps are made in two forms. 

Trap No. i, for oblique position, is most suitable for 
direct connection to sand box placed on top of boiler. 

Trap No. 2, for \'ertical position is most suitable for 
connection to sand box placed on or below the running 
board. 

Directions for Use. To start, open steam valve. " 

To stop, close steam valve. 

One complete set of the single apparatus, for sand- 
ing in one direction, consists of one steam valve; one 
drip cock; two traps and- two ejectors. 

One complete set of the double apparatus, for sand- 
ing in both directions, consists of one double steam 
valve; two drip cocks; four traps and four ejectors. 

The Hancock Pneumatic Cylinder Cock. Fig. 207. 
The Hancock pneumatic cylinder cocks are operated 
by air instead of the usual sliding bar with the con- 
nections to the cab. These cocks are composed of 
a small cylinder with a piston under each valve 
which is similar to the ordinary cylinder cock valve 
The piston is provided with an incline similar to the 
usual incline on the bar which lifts the valve, which is 



422 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING. 



very similar to the ordinary cylinder cock valve. The 
movement of this piston back and forth opens and 
closes the valves. Air is admitted to each cylinder 
through a ^-in. pipe, making four ^-in. pipe connec- 
tions to each cylinder of an engine. These are con= 




side view front view 

Figure 209 

Operating Valve for Cylinder Cock 

fiected to two ^-in. pipes run under lagging and 
connected to the operating valve in the cab. One of 
these pipes connects with the closing end of each 
cylinder cock. The other pipe connects with each 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 423 

opening end of each cylinder cock. The operating 
valve is also connected by one ^-in. pipe to the main 
reservoir. 

To operate the cylinder cock, the operating handle 
or lever is pulled in one direction to open, the oppo- 
site direction for closing. 

Each end of each cylinder cock is provided with a 
small hole which allows for the exhausting of all the 
air after it has thrown the piston in either direction. 
A hole also in center allows for any condensation or 
drip that may enter the cylinder when the cylinder 
cocks are open. 

The operating valve is a very simple device, opening 
with a lever against a pressure of air and closed by 
pressure of air aided by a spring under each valve, and 
it has been found in practice that by opening and 
closing the operating valve, no matter how quickly, it 
will effect the purpose, and a very small quantity of 
air is consumed. 

The two pipe connections on the operating valve 
leading to the cylinders are provided with a plug, 
which can be unscrewed by hand if occasion requires, 
and a small amount of kerosene or signal oil intro- 
duced, the plug screwed up and this oil blown through 
the pipe ancl valves for the purpose of cleaning, and 
will do it very effectually. 

The illustration shows how the cylinder cocks and 
operating valve. Fig. 210, are located and piped. 

Boiler Washing and Testing Apparatus. The new Rue 
washing and testing apparatus, will wash out, fill, and 
apply pressure to a boiler, with hot water. It has a 
capacity of 5000 gallons per hour. 

When this apparatus is used, the boilers are washed 
much more effectually than can be done with cold 



424 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



till P"si 

^^ III 




INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 425 

water, and their temperature is not mateiially re- 
duced. 

It enables one to blow out, wash and fill with hot 
water and have engine ready for service within one 
hour, without injury to the boiler. 

When applying pressure, this apparatus will produce 
and maintain from three to five times the amount of 
steam pressure used in operating it 




Figure 211 
Hancock Locomotive Hose Strainer 

Keeping cock to the pressure gauge partly closed 
will prevent the hand from unduly vibrating. 

One of the Many Ways It May Be Located. Take cold 
water to the apparatus out of, and put hot water back 
into, the pipe that supplies water for washing with cold 
water, always putting in a stop valve or cock between 
the connections. The hot water from the apparatus 
will pass with great force through the same pipe, hose, 
nozzles, etc., as are used with cold water. 

This apparatus has connection for 2-in. pipes, and 
•Tiost be located where the water will flow to it 



426 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT 

A good headlight is a very necessary part of the 
equipment of a locomotive. It matters not how well 
the engine and train may be equipped with the air 
brake and other safety devices, if the man at the 
throttle does not or cannot see the danger ahead in 
time to apply the "air" and make the stop, the result 
is going to be a disaster of a more or less serious 
.nature. Of course, by daylight there is practically no 
excuse for the engineer not seeing what is in front of 
him, but in hours of darkness the situation is reversed 
and unless the engine is equipped with a headlight 
that will project the light a far enough distance ahead 
to enable the engineer to see the impending danger in 
time to stop, or at least to considerably slacken the 
speed of the train, the responsibility for a smashup 
should not rest wholly upon the shoulders of the en- 
gineer. He may know every foot of track from one 
end of the division to the other end, but he cannot 
know intuitively whether or not the track ahead of 
him is clear and safe, except he can see it. 

The ordinary oil head lamp falls far short of the re- 
quirements of a good headlight, and, until inventors 
shall succeed in perfecting a headlight that will illu- 
minate the track ahead of the engine for a sufficient 
distance to cover the number of yards distance re- 
quired in which to make a stop, the problem of the 
safe running of trains at night will remain in an un- 
solved state. There is but one device that appears to 
offer a solution of this most important question, and 
that is the electric headlight. Inventors have been 
striving for quite a numbers of years to bring out a re- 
liable and efficient light of this kind, and although 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. /27 

the process of development has been slow, still prog- 
ress has been made, especially since the steam turbine 
has become available for operating the small dynamo 
or generator required to furnish the electric current 
needed. There is no doubt that the electric head- 
light will in time take its place as an element of safeto, 
second only to the air brake in the running of rail- 
way trains. In order that the reader may get at least 
an idea of what is being acccomplished along this line, 
the author presents the following information, de- 
scriptive and otherwise, together with illustrations. 

The Fy\e: National Electric Head Light Company 
of Chicago are the makers of a light that appears to 
be deservedly working its way to the front, there being 
now about five thousand of their headlights in use, 
with a growing demand for more. 

The device may be located either on the front end 
of the engine forward of the stack, cr the generator 
maybe located on the left side just in front of the cab, 
while the lamp will occupy the usual position in front 
of the stack. Figure 212 shows the complete outfit on 
the front end ahead of the stack, and figure 213 shows 
the generator located on the boiler just in front qf the 
cab. 

Instructions for Applying the Equipment. If it is to 
be placed on the front end as shown in Fig. 212, 
measure the depth of the headlight case to be used 
and add 18 inches to this measurement. Then have 
a baseboard made, using these measurements for the 
length of board, and make the breadth the standard 
width for oil headlights. Bend a piece of f by 3 in. 
iron flat ways "U" shaped, making center of iron 
come over the center of brackets on engine and make 
the length about two inches shorter than the base- 



428 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




INJECTORS STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 429 

board. Place this iron "U" on the brackets within 
about two inches from the stack and mark for bolts 
through brackets. 

Put baseboard on the iron "U" so the back edge 
will just clear the stack, and bolt to brace. Place the 
equipment on the board, with dynamo on the left side 
of locomotive and as near the back edge of board as 
possible, and bolt to board. Then bolt the headlight 
case to board in front of equipment. Put a f-in. 
angle valve in the highest part of the boiler in the cab 
with dry pipe, and run a f-in. pipe from this valve 
under the jacket on right side of the boiler to the 
equipment. Use i^-in. pipe for the exhaust, running it 
through the arch and have end of pipe about flush with 
the top of the nozzle tips of the locomotive. Use 2-in. 
pipe inside the arch, as it reduces noise and does not 
act on the fire. 

If the equipment is to be located on the boiler just 
in front of the cab take up back sheet of jacket and 
fasten two brackets to boiler suitable for holding the 
equipment crosswise of boiler. Have a baseboard 
(iron or wood) made and bolt to braces, then place 
equipment with the dynamo on left side of locomotive 
and bolt to base. 

If steel or iron baseboard is used, the equipment 
should be insulated from base by wood or as- 
bestos sheet. Place a f-in. angle valve in the highest 
part of boiler in the cab (with dry pipe) and run a f- 
in, iron pipe to the equipment. Run the i4-in. 
exhaust pipe up above cab or down to running board 
and into arch. Run the lead wires through an inde- 
pendent pipe if possible or through the hand railing, 
being sure to insulate them carefully to prevent chafing, 
eic. 



430 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

To apply the lamp to the reflector and case, remove 
the oil tank and all supports and guides from the re- 
flector Cover the board holding the reflector with 
tin, having the edges turned up about one-half inch. 

This prevents sparks from the lamp from setting 
fire to the oil-saturated board. Secure the support for 
the back of the reflector to the lamp board on right- 
hand side, and adjust the screw until the reflector 
stands level. Remove both carbon holders from the 
lamp and set the lamp on the board, on the side nearest 
door of case, then put bottom holder in lamp and 
place the lamp on the board with copper electrode in 
center of hole in reflector, being sure to have base 
of lamp square with reflector slide. Mark for holes 
in center of large square holes in base of lamp and 
bore for f-in. bolts. 

Secure the small wires for the incandescent lamps 
by the small screws at the right of brush holders. Run 
the incandescent wires through the hand railing to the 
cab, in wood strips. Run wires for cab in wood strips. 
Wind all the joints with tape. 

The electric headlight equipment complete consists 
of engine, dynamo and lamp, and material for three 
incandescent lights in cab. 

The Engine. The engine is known as the Pyle com- 
pound steam turbine. There are no wearing surfaces 
inside the engine requiring lubrication, hence they do 
not use any sight feed lubricator in the cab. Before 
starting the engine be sure the casing is thoroughly 
drained, and do not turn on steam too suddenly in 
starting the light, thus allowing time for the conden- 
sation to get out of the engine. It must have dry 
steam. 

Remove plug in top of engine once each week and 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 431 

pour in a little black oil. This will prevent corrosion 
of parts. The inside bearing only needs enough oil 
in the well for the loose ring to touch the oil and carry- 
up on top of the shaft. If there is too much oil, it 
will be thrown out of the ends of the cellar by the 
motion of the locomotive, whicrh may ruin the arma- 
ture. The oil well for the outside bearing should be 
filled each trip. Use valve or cylinder oil in these 
bearings. 

The Dynamo. The dynamo is constructed on the 
latest scientific principles, and the electrical balance 
is so perfect that no sparks should be seen at the 
bmshes. The armature is held in place on the engine 
shaft by one screw which can be easily taken out if 
occasion demands. The brush holders are fixed, and 
the brushes can be taken out and replaced without 
changing the tension of the springs. A graphite 
brush is used for the top and a carbon brush for the 
bottom, and a few moments' care each trip is all that 
is required. 

The mica between the copper strips of the com- 
mutator should always be a trifle below the surface. 
If it gets too high, file it down with a small file. Do 
not get it too low, as it will collect dirt, etc., and cause 
a short circuit. The commutator should be cleaned 
each trip with a damp piece of waste (not wet), rub- 
bing endwise so as to keep the creases clean where 
mica is filed out. 

Be sure and have the brushes fit perfectly on the 
commutator. If there is poor contact brushes will 
spark. If commutator is running out or has the ap- 
pearance of getting rough, clean it up. To do this 
nicely, remove brushes and hold a strip of No. o sand- 
paper (not emery paper) on the commutator while 



432 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



running (see Fig. 214). Don't press the sandpaper on, 
for if there are any low spots they will increase in size. 
If the brush tension spring is too tight, it creates 
friction, heat and unnecessary wear, both on the com- 
mutator and the brushes. If too loose it will spark and 
commutator will not run clean. Have it just tight 
enough to prevent sparking. In this case a little 
judgment must be used, for if the brushes are not in 
the proper condition, or commutator smooth and true, 

there will be sparking 
at the brushes, no mat- 
ter how much pressure 
is used. Do not for- 
get that the commuta- 
tor is the vital part of 
all dynamos, and none 
will run successfully 
without regular care 
and attention. The 
voltage of the dynamo 
Figure 214 jg entirely too low to 

force a current through any portion of the human body, 
so it may be handled freely and without any possible 
fear of being injured by it. It only requires a few 
moments' attention each day to keep the plant in 
perfect condition. 

If the commutator becomes rough or out of round, 
it should be trued up in a lathe. The tool used must 
be very sharp, and light cuts must betaken, then polish 
it with fine sandpaper. It must be carefully examined 
to see that no two sections touch, as the copper is 
liable to lag or burr from one section to the other, and 
before putting it back, it would be better to cut or file 
the mica (between each section) a little below the sur- 




INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 433 

face, for it does not wear away as fast as the copper, 
and if the mica is not cut away it may lead to spark- 
ing. After doing this, be sure no ragged edges ot 
copper stick up, for this will cut away the brushes 
rapidly. The speed of the armature should be as near 
1,800 revolutions per minute as possible, unless the 
copper electrode burns off, when it should be reduced 
until the copper electrode does not burn. 

The Lamp. (Fig. 215) — is simple, durable and re- 
liable, and after a few 
trials it becomes an easy 
matter to trim the lamp in 
the dark, should occasion 
demand. In putting in 
the top carbon, it is much 
better to remove the car- 
bon holder from the slide. 
After securing the carbon 
in the holder, take it be- 
tween the thumb and fore- 
finger and with the re- 
maining fingers resting on 
the guide put it in place. 
If desired to clean the re- ^ ^^t- 

flector remove only the 

top guide by-loosening the thumb nut at the end of 
the upper arm, then remove the guide carbon and 
carbon holder. 

The tension spring in the lamp is for two purposes, 
it brings together the points of the carbons, so as to 
establish the arc when the dynamo is set in motion, for 
there must be a complete circuit before there is any 
current. If the carbons are separated only a small 
fraction of an inch, the lamp will refuse to work. 




434 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

because the current will not jump across the separation. 
Sometimes there will be a deposit of scale on the 
point of the lower copper electrode which prevents 
the top carbon touching the copper, and as the current 
will not go through this scale there will be no light 
until this is removed. See that the point of copper 
is clean before each trip. Suppose all wires are 
connected and the lamp properly trimmed, turn on 
steam and set the armature in motion. The current 
enters the lamp and passing through or around the 
solenoid magnet draws down the iron armature. This 
in turn separates the carbons, thus forming the arc or 
light. It will be noticed that the spring is secured to 
the end of the lever toward the carbons, or on the 
opposite end from the magnet and pulls against it. 
This prevents the solenoid from pulling the carbon 
too far apart. The volume of light will depend largely 
on the way this tension spring is regulated. It may 
be so tight that the magnet will be unable to separate 
the carbons, consequently there will be no light. If 
the dynamo is run too long with the lamp in this condi- 
tion it will burn out the armature or the fields, for the ' 
current becomes very heavy. 

If the tension spring is very loose, the lamp will flash 
and go out, for the magnet will be drawn down too 
far. When the light goes out the current is broken, 
and there being no strength in the magnet, the spring 
will again bring the carbons together, then the current 
is instantly re-established. Adjust the spring so the 
lamp will flicker just a little, when the locomotive 
is at rest. 

The wires leading back to the incandescent lamps 
may come together, causing a short circuit. This will 
put the light out. When this occurs the dynamo will 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 435 

be generating a heavy current, the speed will be quite 
low, and there will be a small light in the lamp. In 
this case just disconnect one of the small wires from 
connecting screw, then look for the cause of the 
trouble. 

Most of the troubles are traceable to the adjustment 
of the lamp. 

The magnet yoke may travel too far sometimes and 
strike the small lug on frame of lamp before carbons 
are separated sufficiently to make a proper arc. In 
this case the wire should be shortened so that the 
magnet yoke is about half way down before the 
clutch grips carbon. 

If the wire is too short the lamp will jump or the 
carbon will stick in the clutch. 

If the carbon feeds too fast the top clutch spring is 
too weak and should be given more tension. To do 
this, remove cotter pin and get top-clutch spring out of 
casing. Then pull it out a little, thereby giving it 
more "set, " 

If the light burns green the dynamo is running too 
fast and the speed should be reduced. 

This can be stopped on the road at once by throttling 
the steam in the cab. There is another reason for 
light burning green. The main wires from the dy- 
namo to the lamp may be connected wrong, therefore 
one wire, should have a sleeve on each end large 
enough to prevent its going into the binding post with 
the small hole. The other wire should have plain ends. 

The lamp can be moved in all directions for focus- 
ing. To get the proper vertical focus on the track, 
either to have the light close to you or to strike 
the track far ahead, loosen the set screw on the side, 
and by turning the adjusting screw the lamp can be 



436 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

raised or lowered as desired. To move it sideways, 
backward or forward, loosen the hand nuts and the 
lamp is free to move. 

When once in focus there is no need of changing 
it again. Tighlen all screws. 

The back of the reflector is supported by an adjust- 
able step, with a screw to raise or lower it, so the 
volume of the light will come out in parallel lines. 

Focus Lamp. i. Adjust back of reflector so front 
edge will be parallel w'ith front edge of case. 

2. Adjust lamp to have point of copper as near cen- 
ter of reflector as possible. 

3. Have carbon as near center of chimney hole in 
reflector as possible. 

4. Have locomotive on straight track and move 
lamp until best results are obtained on track. The 
light should be reflected in parallel rays and in as 
small a space as possible. 

To lower light on track, raise. lamp. To ra* ,e light 
on track, lower lamp. 

If the light throws any shadows it is not focused 
properly. 

If light is focused properly and does not then strike 
center of track do not change focus, but shift entire 
case on base board. 

Point of copper should be about one inch above top 
of holder. If it is higher than this there will be too 
much heat on clutch. 

To Roundhouse Men. A centrifugal brake is placed 
on back side of spoke of wheel and should be set so 
as to act at about 100 revolutions per minute more 
than where the governor acts, so that, if for any 
reason, the governor fails to act, this brake will check 
the speed and hold it at any speed at which the brake 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 437 

is set. The application of this brake commences with 
equipment No. 2,600, but cannot be applied to equip- 
ments with serial number lower than that 

To adjust centrifugal brake, remove the armature 
and cap to the engine, pull out wheel and shaft when 
there will be free access to brake. If it is desired to 
adjust brake so that it will act at a higher speed, turn 
nuts to right, being sure to adjust both brakes the 
same, then tighten up jam nuts. One-halt turn of 
the nut will change the speed at which the brake will 
act about 150 revolutions. 

The governor should be examined once each month, 
and if the plungers are found cut they should be 
ground in or faced off as the case requires. If plungers 
are cut, the engine may run away and be broken by 
centrifugal force. If plungers are faced off, the ends 
of governor yoke should be bent further out from 
face of wheel, thereby allowing plungers to again 
seat firmly before governor weights are thrown out 
further than at right angles to face of wheel If the 
speed is too high, adjusting screws should be turned 
back half a turn each, being careful to adjust all th*: 
screws the same. Half a turn of these screws should 
change speed about 100 revolutions per minute. If by 
turning back governor spring adjusting screw the speed 
is not reduced, the plungers do not seat, and should 
be faced off. 

Suggestions. Have a few strips of No. o sandpaper 
about i^ in. wide to clean up the commutator. 

If the light fails to burn when turnir.g on steam, 
see that all screws are tight, and that point of copper 
electrode is clean. Push down on lever and see if car- 
bon lifts up and falls freely. Put a carbon across 
both binding posts, and if there is a flash when it -is 



438 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

removed, dynamo is all right and the trouble is in 
lamp. If there is no flash when carbon is removed 
take out brushes and clean commutator with sandpaper 
(not emery paper), put the brushes back and try the 
carbon again. 

Keep all screws tight. 

After putting in a new carbon, always push down 
on lever, and notice if carbon lifts and falls freely. If 
it does not lift, it is not in the clutch. If it does not 
fall down freely, turn it partly around and find the 
freest place. 

The carbon should burn from eight to nine hours. 
Engineers should be held responsible for the proper 
care of the equipment unless some one is appointed to 
examine and care for them at roundhouses. 

Before leaving on a trip the equipment should be 
started and brushes examined, as to tension of springs, 
and adjusted if necessary before getting out on the 
road. 

These equipments are not automatic, and as there 
are quite a number of enemies to electricity on the 
locomotive, such as grease, dirt, jar, heat, etc. , it is 
necessary to give it a few minutes' attention each day. 
Don't attempt to remove reflector from the case 
until the top carbon holder is removed by loosening 
thumb nut. 

If the copper electrode burns off, equipment is run- 
ning too fast, and the speed should be reduced by 
turning governor spring screws to the left until the 
trouble is stopped. Be careful and adjust .all screws 
the same as nearly as possible. One-half turn of 
screws will change speed about lOO revolutions per 
minute. 

Be sure and adjust tension spring as loose as 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 439 

possible and not have the light go out while locomo- 
tive is standing still. 

If light dies dovi^n when locomotive is running fast, 
the tension spring may be too tight, which prevents 
solenoid from separating carbons sufficiently to form 
proper arc, or top-clutch spring may be too loose, 
allowing back edge of clutch to be jarred up and 
release carbon. 

If the light goes out when the locomtive is standing 
still, the tension spring may be too loose or carbon 
may not feed freely. 

If light burns green on the road, throttle steam at 
once. 

If electrode does not come in line with the carbon, 
the holder should be bent until electrode comes in 
line with top carbon. 

Both ends of one lead wire should be doubled about 
one inch so it cannot go into binding post with the 
small hole, and thereby prevent crossing of wires. 

Special motor brushes should be used with the im- 
proved brush holders, top and bottom brush being 
of the same quality. The graphite and carbon brushes 
used with the old style brush holders should not be 
used with the improved brush holders nor special 
motor brushes in the old style holder. 

The Edwards Electric Headlight Co., of Chicago, 
whose factory is at La Porte, Ind., are manufacturing 
an electric headlight which, in addition to sending a 
powerful ray along the tracks in front of the engine, 
also projects a powerful vertical beam. The vertical 
beam makes a very decided illumination in the 
heavens, so much so that it is possible not only 
to detect the presence of an engine, but also in many 
cases to follow its path and determine in which way 



440 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



it is heading. An engineer is by this means placed in 
touch with the movements of other trains in his vicinity 
and is enabled to detect their presence where, if they 
carried ordinary horizontal beam headlights, he would 




Figure 216 
Front View Showing Shade Drawn 

be unaware of their location. The horizontal ray of 
light projected in front of the engine, highly illumi- 
nates the track and right of way for a distance of 
half a mile to a mile ahead of the train. Among the 
objections that have been raised to the use of electric 
headlights on locomotives is this one, that owing to the 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 441 

very brilliant light the engineer would not be able to 
distinguish the different colored signals, but practical 
experience seems to refute this idea, and the claim 
made for the Edwards light is that it does not in any 
wise decrease the efficiency of the signal lights, but 
on the contrary that they show up in their true colors. 
Another valid objection is, that on a double track 
road there is danger of blinding an approaching en- 




Figure 217 
The Turbine Engine Disassembled 



gineer. There is good ground for this latter objection 
and to guard against this contingency the apparatus 
is provided with a translucent shade, 'within the 
goggle, which may be drawn at will by the engineer 
when he is at the proper distance from an approaching 
engine. This shade destroys the strong glare of the 
^jght, giving the effect of frosted glass. As soon as 
the approaching train is passed the engineer releases 
the shade and again gets the full value of the light. 
The Edwards equipment, a front view of which is 



442 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

given in Fig. 216, consists of four parts: first, the 
motor, a simple-acting steam turbine; secondly, the 
dynamo, mounted on the same axle with the turbine 
and designed to yield to the arc light a current of from 
30 to 33 amperes and from 30 to 33 volts; thirdly, the 
lamp, including the arc, the deflectors and the case; 
and fourthly, the ^bed-plate on which the whole appa- 
ratus is mounted. 

The steam turbine, shown disassembled in Fig. 217, is 
provided with a propellor wheel, which is wholly con- 
structed of rolled steel. It has a factor of safety of 
about 7, for, while the normal speed of the engine 
and dynamo Is about 2,000 r. p. m., the wheel will 
withstand successfully a speed of about 14,000 r. p. m. 
The speed of the engine is held constant, or practical- 
ly so, regardless of change of load or Initial pressure, 
by a simple and efficient governor, which is so arranged 
with relation to the other parts of the engine as 
to be easily and readily accessible, should occasion 
demand. The wheel shaft is journaled In ball bearings, 
and the coefficient of friction is so low that the turbine 
will operate, running to its full speed, under a pressure 
so slight that a pointer upon a 180-pound steam gauge 
will not leave Its stop, the gauge being connected be- 
tween the governor valve and the nozzle. All the 
moving parts are encased in a cast-iron housing so 
designed as to thoroughly protect it from the elements 
dust, dirt, etc. The lubrication Is automatic and is 
provided by loose rings feeding the oil to the ball 
bearings from the oil wells. 

The dynamo Is of peculiar construction, designed 
for the particular purpose for which it is used. The 
field is differentially wound, and the electric circuits so 
arranged that a burned-out armature is impossible. 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 443 

Should a short circuit occur on any point of the cir- 
cuit, the current is neutralized, and no matter how long 
the engine may run or the armature rotate, there will 
be no production of current whatever until the short 
circuit is removed. As soon as this is done the dynamo 
performs its proper functions and operates as usual. 
The current densities throughout the whole machine 
are very low, so that a minimum heat effect is pro- 
duced, regardless of extremes of temperature or other 
conditions which might affect the resistance of the 
machine. Low-resistance carbon brushes are used, 
and many months of constant wear show very little 
deterioration of these brushes. Very large and long 
journal bearings are provided, and profuse lubrication 
is secured through the medium of loose rings dipping 
into the oil wells. An important feature of the equip- 
ment is the arc lamp with its parabolic reflector. It 
is strongly made, and care has been taken to insure 
a steady and constant light, free from flicker. 

The vertical beam is caused to project upwards by 
an auxiliary plane deflector, placed outside the goggle 
at an angle of 45 deg. and in such a position as to 
intercept about 40per cent of the whole volume of light 
issuing from the parabolic reflector and direct it ver- 
tically. This vertical beam forms a constant warning 
signal. Reaching to a great height, and on cloudy 
nights striking the clouds, it can be seen for many 
miles. In fact, upon the Big Four road it has been 
seen for a distance of 21 miles, and on the Chicago, 
Milwaukee and St. Paul road it has been seen for a 
distance exceeding 16 miles. 

The whole apparatus is generally mounted upon 
one cast-iron bedplate, and it is the work of only six 
or ten hours to apply the equipment to the locomotive. 



444 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 445 

All that is necessary is to secure the bedplate at the 
proper place on the smoke arch by means of brackets 
bolted thereon, the running of a three-quarter-inch 
liv^e steam pipe from the cab, and the passing of a 
one and one-quarler-inch exhaust pipe into the smoke 
arch. 

Figure 218 gives a sectional view of the equipment. 
The light is fitted with a carbon positive pole and a 
copper negative. The focus is maintained by special 
mechanism, an adjustable guide being furnished for 
the carbon. This guide bears in three points on the 
carbon and permits of perfect adjustment regardless 
of small differences in diameter of the latter. Fig. 219 
presents a view of the assembled turbine and generator 
direct connected. The steam is led to the engine 
through a f-in. copper pipe from the cab and the 
exhaust is led into the smoke arch by means of a 
i^-in. WiOught iron pipe. The steam exhausts al- 
most opposite the admission port of the engine, 
through the various exhaust ports seen in the cut, 
Fig. 217. 

To Remove the Armature. To remove the armature, 
first take out the brushes from their holders, back 
of the set screw on the brush holder yoke; then re- 
move the four nuts and two cap screws. The end plate 
may then be taken off, after which the armature may 
be withdrawn. The field coils are held in place by J- 
in. square keys. The coils maybe removed by driv- 
ing out the keys and removing the pole pieces. In 
reassembling the dynamo, be sure the oil rings are 
raised to permit the shaft to pass through the bearings, 
then replace the end plate. The field coils and 
armature are protected by a circular sheet steel casing 
fitting into grooves in the end plates. The armature 



446 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



is mounted in self-adjusting bronze bearings. These 
bearings are lubricated by means of rings, the shaft 
having spiral grooves to carry the oil throughout the 
bearings. Overflow oil holes are drilled in both oil 
wells to prevent too much oil being placed in the 
bearings. These overflow holes must be kept open, 
and the oil wells occasionally cleaned of sediment 
by removing the plugs, and cleaning the reservoirs 




Figure 219 
The Minature Turbine and Dynamo 



with kerosene. Care must be taken to have the oil rings 
in the slots in the bronze bearings. 

To Adjust the Lamp. To adjust the lamp, first have 
the correct speed on the dynamo, and the commutator 
and brushes working properly, then set the adjusting 
screw on the shunt side of the lamp, so that the pawl 
will clear the escapement wheel about j^^ of an inch; 
then raise the brass tube, or oil cylinder, which carries 
the carbon by means of the carbon- holder support, 
and permit it to fall, then adjust the limic 3crew so 
that when the arc is established it will hold over with- 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 447 

out breaking the circuit. If the arc breaks when the 
light is started, or if, while the light is in operation, 
the equalizer sets up a pumping' action, giving a 
vibrating or flickering light, the limit screw is set 
too high. On the other hand, if this limit screw is set 
too low, there will not be sufficient separation, when 
the light is started, and there will be only a small 
red light. This also may occur when the light is in 
operation and the locomotive in motion, which defect 
may be easily and quickly corrected by slightly raising 
this limit screw. When the arc is properly established 
the spring should be adjusted by means of ^h i.uts so 
that the carbon will feed as it burns away without 
breaking the arc. If "tack head" dep. ^its form on the 
top of the negative, and, breaking off, interrupt the 
light occasionally it is evidence that the spring is too 
weak, thus not allowing the arc to be drawn out long 
enough. A slight increase of the spring tension b)* 
adjusting the nuts will correct this fault. 

It is necessary that the brass tube, or oil cylinder, 
guide rod, and valve rod should be kept perfectly clean 
For this purpose a soft felt cloth should be used, neve, 
using sandpaper or emery paper or waste, as the sane 
and emery will roughen these surfaces, and the lint 
from the waste may clog the rack. 

The Brushes and Brush Holders. The brushes and 
brush holders must be kept perfectly clean, and the 
brushes must always slide freely In the holders. The 
brushes must always occupy the proper position on 
<he commutator, and the screw firmly set. Unless 
they are kept in this position there will be sparking 
between the brushes and the commutator, thus re- 
ducing the light and burning the commutator. The 
2nds of the brushes which bear upon the commutator 



448 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

are slightly beveled, and in replacing them in the 
holders see that their full end surface has complete 
contact with the surface of the commutator. The 
brushes are self-lubricating and no oil or other lubricant 
must ever be put on the commutator. 

Use only sufficient spring tension on the brushes to 
prevent sparking between the brushes and the com- 
mutator. 

The Commutator. The copper bars of the commu- 
tator are separated by mica insulation. 

The copper will wear more than the mica and if the 
mica is allowed to project above the surface of the 
copper, even slightly, it will prevent perfect contact 
between the copper bars and brushes, which must, at 
ail times, be maintained. To prevent the mica from 
thus interfering with perfect contact between the brushes 
and the copper bars, the mica should always be a little 
below the surface of the copper bars. This is accom- 
plished by filing out the mica to a depth of about -^-^ 
of an inch by the use of a small file. This process will 
raise a slight burr on the edges of the copper bars 
which must be removed by using a strip of No o sand- 
paper (never use emery). In this operation run the 
machine slowly, meantime working the sandpaper 
back and forth lengthwise of the commutator so as to 
cover the whole surface, until it is perfectly smooth, 
then wipe the commutator clean, working a clean cloth 
or waste lengthwise to clean out the shallow grooves 
between the copper bars. 

Use sandpaper as above described whenever the 
commutator becomes slightly rough. Should the 
commutator become too rough, or out of round, the 
armature should be removed, and the commutator 
dressed off in a lathe, using a diamond-point too(, and 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 449 

removing only enough metal to make a perfectly true 
and clean surface. After turning, polish with sand- 
paper (never use emery), then file out the mica as 
above directed. 

THE VICTOR LOCOMOTIVE STOKER 

The Victor Locomotive Stoker is the successor to 
the Kincaid Locomotive Stoker, which was invented 
by Mr. John Kincaid, who was for many years an en- 
gineer on the Chesapeake & Ohio R. R. 

Necessity is, and always will be, the "mother of 
invention." Conditions arise which can only be 
met with approved ideas and approved methods, and 
the increased traffic, both in the freight and passenger 
service of all the prominent railways, has necessitated 
heavy power engines of approved types and enormous 
size, in order to accomplish desired results. In fact, 
the engines have grown beyond the capabilities of the 
firemen, and as the latter could not be reconstructed 
or endowed with greater strength and endurance, 
mechanical means became the only logical solution 
of the problem. 

To meet these conditions, and to relieve the firemen 
of the severe and exhaustive drudgery imposed upon 
him, the inventor, himself a Brotherhood engineer, 
and a former wielder of the scoop, designed his now 
famous stoker. It was not designed to degrade the 
fireman's position, but to exalt it; not to make his 
duties within the province of "cheap men," but to 
put a premium upon his intelligence; to give him 
greater opportunities to study and thus hasten 
the time of his promotion to the position of engi- 
neer. 



4SO LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

The mer^'ts of Mr. Kincaid's invention are manifold, 
but prominent among them are — 

Its ability to fire an engine without opening the door, 
thus relieving the fireman from the extreme heat of 
the firebox; to scatter the coal in small quantities 
over the whole grate area, just as the needs of the 
engine require, thus obtaining almost perfect combus- 
tion, the reduction of the smoke and spark nuisance 
to a minimum and to insure the greatest possible sav- 
ing in coal. A higher and more uniform steam pres- 
sure can thus be obtained; less clinkers are formed; 
longer runs can be made without cleaning the fires; as 
the stoker fires without opening the door, the in-rushes 
of cold air from frequent opening of the fire-door are 
eliminated, and the fire-box sheets and flues are pro- 
tected from sudden contractions and expansions; thus 
the chief source of leaks in the furnace are practically 
overcome. 

In firing with the stoker a much lower grade of coal 
can be used than is possible in hand firing and still ac- 
complish as good or better results. Nut and slack coal 
is always preferable when using the stoker. 

These stokers have been in operation since January 
1st, 1905, attached to locomotives with wide fire-boxes, 
and to locomotives with long fire-boxes, used on all 
classes of passenger service. The result of this work 
has proven beyond all question that the stoker will do 
its work efficiently and economically and that the fire- 
man, having once become acquainted with the stoker 
and recognizing its labor-saving features, becomes its 
enthusiastic supporter. 

The continuous feeding of coal has a very marked 
effect upon the amount consumed. Run-of-mine coal 
is used, but it has been found that a good grade o' 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 45* 

slack will secure even better results owing to the prin- 
ciple of feeding coal in small quantities widely distri- 
buted. Absence of dense volumes of black smoke h 
also very noticeable. 

Figure 220 shows the stoker as it appears in the cab, 
the small controlling engine required to operate it 
being located on the boiler head on the fireman's 
side. 

The following are the dimensions of the apparatus: 
Length over all, 47 inches; as three inches of the 
trough enters the fire door, the stoker extends back 
on the deck 44 inches; width over all, 24 inches; 
height on short legs, 28 inches. 

Figure 221 shows the stoker as attached to the furnace 
of a locomotive. A represents the hopper which re- 
ceives the coal; B the plunger-trough through which 
coal is propelled into the furnace; C the stoking cylin- 
der; D the rotary valve; E the furnace door; F the 
controlling engine, and at the left of the furnace door, 
the steam pipe extending to the locomotive boiler; 
also the valves and choke-plugs of the stoker, arranged 
for the convenience of the fireman in regulating the 
operation of the machine. 

The illustration in Fig. 221 shows the controlling 
engine connected underneath the stoker. Fig. 222 
is a transverse view from Fig. 221, and shows the head 
of the plunger and its position in the trough at the 
end of each stroke; the conical deflector, attached to 
the inside of the door, which spreads the coal in the 
fire-box, and when the stoker is removed, maybe turn- 
ed up to close the hole occupied by trough. The 
rocking-shaft connected with the controlling engine, 
which transmits power to the rotary valve, D, and to 
the conveyors in the hopper; also the end of tiie trough. 



452 



LOCOMCTIVE ENGINEERING 




FiGimE 220 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 453 



in which the plunger travels, and the exhaust steam 
port are likewise shown in this illustration. 

Fig. 223 shows the hopper raised, and reveals one of 
the twin spiral conveyors which carry the coal forward; 
it also shows the opening through which the coal drops 
onto the apron after leaving the conveyors, and, 
when apron is retracted into the trough, to be thrown 
into the fire-box 
by the next for- 
ward stroke of 
the plunger. 

Description. 
The stoker con- 
sists of the fol- 
lowing essential 
parts, viz.: First, 
a main cylinder 
and a trough in 
which recipro- 
cates a piston and 
plunger which 
with a variable 
stroke, throws the coal to the different portions of the 
firebox. This variable stroke is given to the plunger 
by means of a rotary valve, three separate steam 
ports leading from said valve to the rear end of the 
cylinder, and three choke plugs, one for each of the 
said steam ports. 

Second, a small controlling engine. It has been 
found by experience that the most desirable location 
for this engine is on the boiler head on the fireman^s 
side. This removes the liability of condensation and 
consequent dryness of engine parts when placed on 
and beneath the stoker itself. The steam for the 




Figure 221 



454 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

operation' of this engine is taken directly from the 
dome. 

Third, a hopper with two spiral conveyors journaled 
in the bottom of the hopper pan. The conveyors 
carry the coal to the front of the hopper, onto the 
apron of the plunger, giving a regular and uniform 
feed. The speed of the conveyors may be increased 
or diminished by giving more or less steam to the 
controlling engine, as may be required. This also 
increases the number of strokes made by the plunger, 
but does not affect the plunger's velocit}^ or in any 
manner affect the distribution of the coal in the 
firebox, the latter being governed by the three choke 
plugs. 

Fourth, a small steam chest containing a rotary 
valve which regulates the number of strokes made by 
the plunger. 

That portion of the stoker forming this valve chest 
is cast in one piece with the main cylinder and has 
three separate steam_ ports leading to the rear end of 
the cylinder for the admission of steam behind the 
plunger or piston. These steam ports terminate in 
one common port before entering the rear end of the 
cylinder, first through a small preliminary port at the 
end of the cylinder (which also acts in the form of 
compression by retarding exhaust on the last portion 
of the return stroke), and after the piston has advanced 
a short distance it uncovers the main port, which also 
leads from the common port, giving free passage to 
the steam. 

A choke plug is placed in each of the three steam 
ports between the valve-sleeve and the common port. 
The office of the three choke plugs is to vary the 
amount of steam reaching the rear end of the cylinder 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 455 



through the various ports and thereby giving a variable 
stroke to the plunger. 

The valve operates in a rotary manner, each of the 
ports stopping fully open in front of its corresponding 
steam passage in regular succession: Beginning with 
No. 3, (the port nearest the rear of the stoker) the 
steam, after leaving this valve, passes through port 
No. 3 into the common port and the rear end of the 
cylinder. Chok- 
ing down this 
steam port until it 
is almost closed 
causes a very 
light stroke of the 
plunger, distrib- 
uting the coal 
over the grate 
near the fire-door. 
The other two 
valves operate in 
the sarne manner, 
each taking its re- 
spective turn. 
They are adjusted so that more steam is admitted on 
the second stroke than on the third, thus distributing 
coal over the middle portion of the grate, and more 
on the first than on the second, thereby scattering 
coal over the front end of the grate. By this adjust- 
ment of the choke plugs any range of distribution can 
be obtained that may be desired. 

The rotary valve and cylinder are provided with 
suitable live steam and exhaust ports for the return 
of the plunger and the exhaust steam from each end 
of the cylinder. In the front i^ncl of the main cylin- 




FiGURE 222 



456 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

der is a very small live steam port, connected directly 
with the live steam supply, and its office is to return 
the plunger after its forward stroke and also to add 
volume to the steam retained after the piston has 
passed over the forward exhaust port; thus giving the 
desired compression to prevent the piston ramming 
the front cylinder head. By means of a valve this 
port can be enlarged to give increased compression 
necessary when expelling water from condensed steam 
in starting the stoker when it is cold 

Fifth, the furnace door. 

Each machine is supplied with a furnace door made 
to fit the standard door-frame of the locomotive to 
which the stoker is to be attached. This door has an 
opening to receive the stoker trough and is provided 
with suitable brackets for holding the machine in 
position. Cast upon its inner side are curved lugs, 
which serve the purpose of hinges for a deflector for 
spreading each charge of coal over the width of the 
firebox. The end of this deflector can be raised, if 
necessary, to aid in the distribution of coal, by 
means of a set-screw directly under its center. It 
also has a small vertical sliding door for inspecting 
the fire, and the deflector can be turned up vertically 
and held in place by a latch to close the trough 
opening when the stoker is removed. 

To Operate the Stoker. Directions for Firemen. — 
Don't fail to be on your engine at least 2>o minutes be- 
fore leaving time. 

Know for yourself, before starting, that you have 
the necessary tools with which to do your work. If 
they are not on the engine, report the matter to the 
round house foreman, and don't go out without them. 

A fireman's outfit should consist of, 2 scoops; 2 hooks 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 457 

(one 12 feet and one 7 feet); 2 torches; one coal pick, 
and one ash-pan scraper. 

Before leaving the round house, examine the shaker 
rigging and know before starting that it is O. K. Also 
see that the ash-pans are clean. 

To build the fire break every particle of bank. Be 
careful not to get green coal on the grates. Spread 
the fire evenly over the entire grate area, then attach 
the stoker. 

Assist the engineer all you can in getting the engine 
ready, but never neglect j^<?^;' work to do his. Always 
manage to keep the oil cans and torches filled and 
ready for immediate use. 

Be sure the steam is turned on next to boiler. If 
you have a reducing valve set the gauge at about 60 
or 80 pounds; if not, about one half turn on the globe 
valve next to the boiler is sufficient. Before admitting 
steam to stoker always open the admission valve to 
front end of cylinder to prevent the piston from ram- 
ming the front head. Leave this valve open, until 
the condensation is thoroughly blown out, and ma- 
chine heated up to steam temperature. Then close and 
leave it closed. 

Regulate the speed of the stoking piston by the 
throttle valve to the controlling engine. Run the ma- 
chine slowly at first until enough steam is held in the 
cylinder on which to cushion the motion of the piston. 

Starting the Stoker. Turn on the steam gently^ allow- 
ing sufficient tim,e for condensation to blow out. (Turning 
on a full head of steam before condensation is ex- 
hausted will burst this cylinder the same as it would 
on any other engine.) This may require a little time, 
as the steam ports are small. If there are any drain 
cocks on the stoker, see that they are open before 



458 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



turning on the steam. If there are none, considerable 
water will appear at the mouth of the stoker trough 
when starting the machine. This comes from the 
exhaust, and is caused by the steam coming in contact 
with the cold metal of the machine, but will disappear 
in a few minutes, or as soon as the circulation of 
steam has warmed up the cylinders. Should the 
piston head hit the back cylinder head on the return 

stroke open 
choke plug No. 
3 to let in 
enough steam to 
cushion. If 
water appears 
at the exhaust 
after the ma- 
chine has been 
in operation for 
some time, it 
indicates too 
much water in 
the boiler. As 
soon as steam 
open the globe 




Figure 223 
turned on at 



the boiler, 



has been 

valve in the steam pipe leading to the small 
engine. This is the throttle valve for the small engine, 
and the amount of steam admitted by it regulates the 
speed of the conveyors and the number of strokes made 
by the plunger. To run the machine fast or slow 
increases or diminishes the amount of coal fed into 
the furnace, but does not affect the distribution of the 
coal in the firebox. Should controlling engine be 
lazy about starting touch one of the tappet rods at 
either end of the floating valve. 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 450 

To Regulate the Choke Plugs. To regulate the 
choke plugs tor the distribution of coal in the firebox, 
wait until the steam has reached the maximum pres- 
sure and machine is working; then with all the choke 
plugs wide open, turn on enough steam at the throttle 
valve to throw the coal near to, but not strike the flue 
sheet; then close down the middle choke plug (No. 2) 
until this charge falls near the center of the firebox; 
then close down the choke plug No. 3, next to the back 
end of the stoker, until the coal drops inside the fur- 
nace door. This gives a distribution over the entire 
length of the firebox. Don't fill the hopper with coal 
when regulating the choke plugs or you will get too 
much coal in the firebox, and waste fuel. Use only 
one or two scoopsful at a time and watch the distribu- 
tion in the firebox. 

In regulating the choke plugs when the engines 
are standing, be careful not to make the strokes too 
heavy, as the draft will assist in carrying the coal 
forward when the engine is working. Never try to 
regulate choke plugs with the front end admission 
valve open. If the steam drops 20 or 50 pounds 
while the stoker is in operation, open the throttle 
valve accordingly, unless some form of steam regulator 
is used. If, after running some time you find the 
stoker piston only making half strokes, examine front 
end admission valve and you will find it was not 
entirely closed or accidentally opened. Close this 
as far as you can and remedy the trouble. 

Operating the Stoker. In operating the stoker on 
large engines with a heavy train, usually 20 to 30 
strokes of the plunger per minute is sufficient, provid- 
ing the hopper is kept full. The speed of the stoker 
can be varied from 12 to 40 or more strokes per 



400 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

minute. The speed of the stoker should be regulated 
to correspond with the work the engine is doing. Be- 
fore starting out on a run, see that the entire surface 
of the grates is covered with fire. A heavy fire is 
not necessary, as better results can be obtained with 
a thin, bright fire. Avoid heavy firing. Remember 
the stoker is at work continually and there is little 
danger of the fire getting away, but don't neglect it 
when the engineer shuts off steam. Remember your fire 
is lighter than when firing by hand, and will die out 
quicker. Notice the condition of the fire often. This can 
be done by means of the small vertical sliding 
door above the stoker trough. If you can't see take 
your long hook and feel your fire occasionally. If 
the fire should become banked near the door, open up 
the choke plug No. 3 until this charge of coal goes 
beyond the bank; if the fire becomes banked near the 
flue sheet, close down the choke plug No. i slightly. 
If the fire is too light near the door or flue sheet, the 
reverse action should be taken; if the fire is too heavy 
in the center of the firebox, notice the choke plug No. 
2, and 'f this is firing in the right place either open 
up the choke plug No. i or close down choke plug 
No. 3 slightly, or both, as this may happen by having 
the third stroke too heavy and the first too light. As 
a general rule, when the choke plugs have once been 
regulated, it is seldom necessary to change them. 
However, it is better to change the plugs than to 
hook the fire. If a bank is found anywhere in the 
fire, it can generally be burnt out without using the 
hook, by changing the choke plugs. With engines 
having a severe draft, considerable coal may be 
carried in by the draft before the plunger strikes it. 
This with some engines, is distributed over the back 



INJECTORS, STEAJ^I GAUGES, ETC. 461 

part of the grate, and with some engines it is distrib- 
uted near the center. In either case the choke plugs 
should be regulated to suit these conditions. The 
coal should be broken as fine as possible, as much 
better results can be obtained. Railroads having 
the stoker in use should furnish nut and slack. It is 
much cheaper and the stoker will do better work with 
it. 

In taking stoker apart be very careful not to lose 
nuts, bolts or other small parts, the loss of which might 
disable the machine. 

Always keep the packing around the main piston 
rod tight. If this gets loose the steam used for 
cushioning the forward stroke escapes, causing the 
piston to strike front head. 

Drifting Down Grades. While drifting down a long 
grade it is only necessary to feed enough coal into 
the firebox to keep up the heat and not let fire get 
too low. It has been suggested to build up a pretty 
good fire in the firebox before starting down grade 
and then to use the blower occasionally and feed in 
coal only just what is needed. Before reaching the 
bottom of the grade, if it is a long one, it would be 
well to start the stoker so as to have a good fire and 
a good supply of steam when the engine begins to use 
the steam again. 

Care of Stoking Head. Always stop the stoker before 
hooking the fire as the hook might be caught by ad- 
vance stroke of piston, and the stoking head or piston 
rod be broken. If at any time the stoking head should 
get a trifle loose, take off the nuts which hold it on 
and insert a sheet iron washer behind them to keep 
it tight. Notice this every day. 

Shaking the Grates. The fireman should shake the 



462 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

grates often but not too much at a time. Avoid getting 
green coal on the grates. 

Dampers. Watch the dampers closely. On starting 
out it is occasionally best to keep the front one closed 
and the back one open, but over the last part of the 
run, or in any case where the fire is dirty and the 
draft obstructed, it may be better to open the front 
damper and close the back one. The regulation of 
dampers must be left almost entirely to the judgment 
of the fireman as the varying conditions require 
different adjustments of the dampers. 

Black Smoke. The emission of black smoke indi- 
cates that the engine is being fired too heavily. It 
also indicates that coal is bemg wasted, and as the 
purpose of the stoker is to save, not to waste coal, 
these signs should always be recognized as an evi- 
dence of improper adjustment. 

When the stoker is doing the duty it is capable of 
performing, the proper quantities of oxygen are ad' 
mitted to the firebox to create nearly perfect combus- 
tion, which depends upon two parts of oxygen to one 
part of the combustible elements found in the coal and 
of course, a uniformly high temperature in the firebox 
Therefore, black smoke may be taken as a safe guide in 
determining a waste of coal, resulting from too heavy 
firing, and the stoker should be regulated accordingly. 

Tools. With each stoker is furnished a f^ by ^ 
wrench, which will fit nearly all the small nuts and 
cap screws on the machine. The gl^-in. air pump 
spanner wrench, which is found on every locomotive, 
will unscrew the caps on the floating and reverse 
valve chests and will loosen the stuffing box on main 
cylinder, controlling engine and the rotary valve. The 
thumbscrew which holds the stuffing- box on main 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 4O3 

cylinder from getting loose, is used to turn and draw 
out the reversing valve stem in the controlling en- 
gine. All the studs on stoker are ^ x 2^; all nuts 
are fi semi-finished; all cap screws are ^ x i^. 

All firemen should see that they are supplied with 
one 7 foot and one 12-foot hook, 2 scoops, 2 torches, 
I coal pick and i ash-pan scraper. 

Coal. While the stoker will handle about as large 
lumps of coal as can be fired by the shovel, yet all 
railroads forbid the firing of coal in large lumps as it 
is not only to the advantage of the railroad but also of 
the fireman, for large lumps of coal start clinkers and 
in the end cause more trouble to the fireman than it 
would be to break up the lumps. With the stoker it 
is particularly desirable that all lumps, be broken up 
to a size not larger than a man's fist. 

DON'T FORGET TO FILL LUBRICATOR BEFORE 
STARTING 

Oil. One of the most important duties of a fireman 
in operating a stoker is to see tkat the lubricator is 
feeding oily about three to five drops per minute all tht 
time stoker is in use, but shut off lubricator vhen 
standing on the side track. No steam engine will run 
long without oil, and the stoker is no exception to the 
rule. Therefore we desire to impress upon firemen 
the fact that a lack of oil in the stoker and on all its 
wearing parts will not only disable or damage the 
stoker, but will also brand the fireman in charge of the 
stoker as a careless man and not fit to handle a stoker 
or an engine. 

Care of Stoker at Terminals. As different customs 
prevail on different railroads, it is probable that the 



464 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

same directions for handling the stoker at terminals can- 
not always be followed. 

Our observation, however, has led us to believe that 
it is better for the fireman to detach the stoker at 
terminals and roll it back against the coal gate, leaving 
it in such a position that it cannot be damaged by 
dumping coal into the tender, or be in the way of the 
men cleaning or repairing the engine. 

The fireman should instruct hostlers to have a good 
supply of steam by the time he has reached his engine, 
say 100 pounds pressure or more, and he should make 
it a point at all times to be at his engine in plenty of 
time to have everything ready before time for starting. 
When the fireman reaches his engine he should ex- 
amine the stoker carefully to see that it is all right. 
Blow a little steam through the pipe before connect- 
ing the stoker, and see that there is no coal or cinders 
in the stoker end of the disconnected pipe. Some rail- 
road men have suggested that the hostler should dis- 
connect and connect the stoker at terminals. As 
hostlers, and particularly their helpers, would not 
be expected to be familiar with the stoker, we would 
discourage this idea as we believe it would be a source 
of trouble on account of misusage. Besides this, 
it does not take five minutes for the fireman to detach 
the stoker when coming into a terminal, and he can 
always have it unfastened and placed back out of the 
way before the engine reaches the stopping place, and 
but a few minutes to attach stoker when ready to start 
out; but the fireman should insist upon the hostler or 
his assistants having a good fire ready for him when he 
reaches his engine before starting out. Always try 
shaker bars to see if they are properly connected and 
in good working condition. 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 465 

Accidents. Should an accident occur to the stoker 
while on the road, and you are sure that it cannot be 
readily repaired, cut off the steam from the stoker, 
loosen the connections, and if there is no room on the 
engine deck, run the stoker back out of the way; turn 
up the deflector to cover the hole in the door occupied 
by the trough and fasten it, firing the engine by hand 
until such a time as the permanent door can be put on. 
By removing journal caps on right-hand conveyor, 
the hopper can be removed and placed on back of 
tank. Should the engine be a small one, having no 
room to get the stoker out of the way, let it remain 
in position and fire through the small door until a stop- 
ping place is reached where it can be examined. Do 
not attempt to put on the regular door belonging to 
the engine until a station has been reached or until 
the conditions are such that it can be done without 
losing your fire. Then consider the matter very care- 
fully as to what is best to be done. 

If the stoker can be repaired in the shops of the 
road, have the repairs made as soon as the shops are 
reached, and if the repairs are of such a character that 
they must be made by the manufacturers of the stoker 
wire the shops at the first stopping place to have the 
necessary parts ordered. In dispatches or letters al- 
ways give full information, leaving nothing to be 
guessed at. A few cents more expense by adding a few 
words more to a message should not be considered if 
there is the least possibility of a misunderstanding as 
to your meaning In a letter, if there is any doubt of 
misunderstanding or misinterpretation as to what is 
wanted, make a sketch of the part or parts required. 

In repairing the stoker, should any nuts or bolts 
become rusted or unremovable, soak them thoroughly 



466 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

in kerosene, which will, in most cases, loosen them 
in a short time. Be very careful not to lose any bolts, 
nuts, keys or other small parts, the loss of which 
might disable the machine. 

Whe?i out 071 the road^ make note of any parts that may 
become broken or out of order as soon as discovered, 
and upon reaching the terminal look carefully over 
the stoker and see if any other repairs are needed. 
Make it a point to have the machine in perfect condi- 
tion so that it will be ready to start out on the next 
trip. This is imperative, and must be attended to be- 
fore leaving the roundhouse. 

Do not lose tools and extra parts committed to 
your care, ais such losses can only be attributed to 
carelessness. 



BREWER PNEUMATIC FIRE DOOR OPENER 

The occupation of locomotive firemen is one requir- 
ing a great deal of exercise, especially if the engine 
is on a long freight run, and consuming 15 to 20 tons 
of coal on a run. Some expert has calculated that 
for each ton of coal that is shoveled into the firebox 
with a No. 4 scoop (holding on an average 17 lbs. 
of coal), the fireman is required to make 585 distinct 
movements as for instance with each scoop full there 
are five movements divided up as follows: 

1. Filling the shovel with coal. 

2. Opening the door. 

3. Picking up the shovel. 

4. Throwing the coal into the firebox. 

5. Closing the door. 

Therefore the burning of ten tons of coal requires 
$850 distinct movements on the part of the fireman, 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 



46? 




4<^ 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



•iOoriASio? 




INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 469 

and twenty tons would necessitate 11,700 movements 
in order to place it where it would do the "most 
good." Any device that will tend to save some of 
this hard labor, should certainly be warmly welcomed 
by the fireman. The Brewer Pneumatic Door Opener 
appears to be deservedly working its way to the front 
as not only a labor saver, but also a fuel saver, and 
by its action in opening and closing the firedoor al- 
most instantaneously, it also protects the flues, as it 
prevents the large volume of cold air from entering 
the firebox with each shovelful of coal, which is 
unavoidable with the old style method of opening the 
door. The sudden cooling of the back ends of the 
flues is thus to a large extent prevented, while at the 
same time the single shovel system of firing is insured. 
The apparatus is simple and durable, having very 
few parts, and therefore does not easily get out of 
order. It is clearly shown m the accompanying 
illustrations, which are self-explanatory. The quan- 
tity of air required to operate it is very small, almost 
imperceptible. It consists of a small horizontal air 
cylinder directly underneath the door. This cylinder 
is fitted with a piston, the rod of which is connected 
by means of a link and short arm or crank to the pivot 
upon which the door swings. The motion of the 
door in opening or closing is very rapid, but the door 
does not slam, as there is always a cushion of air to 
prevent this. The door is opened by simply placing 
the foot upon the treadle or trip shown on the deck. 
This action opens the air valve, admitting air to the 
cylinder, thus forcing the piston to move towards the 
right. To close the door, remove the foot from the 
trip, allowing the air behind the piston to escape. 
This permits the door to swing shut. This device is 



470 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

being used quite extensively on the Chicago, Rock* 
Island and Pacific, and other roads. 



Questions 

467. Upon what does the efficiency of a boiler de- 
pend in a large measure? 

468. Theoretically what would be the correct way to 
supply a boiler with water? 

469. Are these conditions practical? 

470. What is the duty of engine men regarding the 
injector? 

471. Is this an important subject? 

472. When is a good time to use the injector? 

473. How may the latent heat stored in the water 
be utilized? 

474. Mention another "right" time and place to use 
the injector. 

475. Should an injector have a wide range of capac- 
ities? 

476. What can be said of the leadingty pes of 
modern injectors? 

477. Who invented the injector? 

478. How can an injector lift and force water into 
under pressure? 

479. What two important qualities does steaip 
possess that enables it to do this? 

480. When steam comes in contact with a body in 
front of it what is the tendency? 

481. What is momentum? 

482. What is the velocity in feet per second of a 
jet of steam discharging at i8o-lb. pressure? 

483. What is the function of the combining tube 
of an injector? 



INJECTORS, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 471 

484. What are some of the requirements of this tube 
as to construction? 

485. Why does the combined jet enter the boiler? 

486. What is the velocity of this jet in the delivery 
tube? 

487. What velocity does the jet need to enter the 
boiler carrying 180 lbs. pressure? 

488. To what then is the action of the injector 
due? 

489. What can be said of the Sellers' Improved Self- 
acting Injector? 

490. What is its range as to pressures? 

491. How is the size of an injector determined? 

492. What is the capacity per hour of a number 
9^ Sellers' at 200 lbs. pressure? 

493. What are some of the things to be done in car- 
ing for an injector? 

494. What about the Sellers' Self-acting Injector 
Class "P." 

495. What should be the quality of the steam used 
in an injector? 

496. Suppose that an injector suddenly stops work- 
ing, what are some of the probable causes? 

497. And what are the remedies? 

498. What sometimes happens to the lifting tube? 

499. Suppose the main check valve does not seat. 
What is to be done? 

500. If there is an air leak in the suction pipe, what 
is the result? 

501. What do lime and salts in the water do for an 
injector? 

502. If the inlet valve does not feel cool what is the 
matter? 

503. What type of injector is the Metropolitan? 



472 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

504. What function does the lifting set of tubes per- 
form? 

505. How low a steam pressure will the Metropoli- 
tan start with? 

506. How high a pressure will it work up to? 

507. Is there any waste at the overflow? 

508. Is it easily regulated? 

509. What is the capacity per hour of a No. 9 
Metropolitan? 

510. How is the capacity of this injector regulated? 

511. What are some of the causes of this injector 
not working properly? 

512. What are line check valves? 

513. What can be said of the "88" Monitor injector? 

514. How should it be located with' reference to 
the water level in the tender? 

515. What kind of combining tube has Rue's Little 
Giant Injector? 

516. How may it be used as a heater? 

517. What type of injector is the "simplex"? 

518. What is its throttling capacity? 

519. How is it used as a heater? 

520. What is the range in pressures for starting the 
Lunkenheimer Injector? 

521. What is the capacity per hour of a No. 15 
Lunkenheimer at 200 lbs. pressure? 

522. Of what does the Hancock Inspirator consist? 

523. How high will it lift water? 

524. Of what does the lifting apparatus consist? 

525. How is the combining tube of the inspirator 
made? 

526. What is the range of working pressures of the 
Hancock Inspirator? 

^27. At what pressure is its maximum capacity? 



INJECTORS, STEiVM GAUGES, ETC. 473 

528. At how high temperature will it take feed 
water? 

529. How is il regulated? 

530c What is the function of the intermediate over- 
flow valve? 

531. What is the capacity per hour of a No. g 
Hancock Inspirator? 

532. How should the inspirator be located in order 
to obtain the best results? 

533. What is a frequent source of annoyance in 
the use of the inspirator? 

534. Mention other causes for the instrument not 
working. 

535. What is a "composite" inspirator? 

536. Mention some of the characteristics of the 
Hancock "Composite." 

537. What qualities should a safety pop valve 
possess? 

538. Describe the action of the Crosby Pop Valve. 

539. How may the point of opening in the Crosby 
be changed? 

540. What kind of a seat has this valve? 

541. How is the American Pop Valve adjusted for 
blowing off pressure? 

542. How is the American Pop Valve adjusted 
for blowdown? 

543. What are some of the characteristics of the 
Crane Pop Valve? 

544. What is a peculiar feature of the Kunkle Pop 
Valve Spring? 

545. Mention another characteristic of this valve. 

546. How often should a lubricator be blown out? 

547. What is to be done with a lubricator when it 
becomes air bound? 



474 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

$48. Do the tubes and nozzles of a lubricator require 
frequent cleaning? 

549. Does scale and sediment from the boiler settle 
in the lubricator? 

550. If the oil pipes become clogged how may they 
be cleansed? 



CHAPTER X 

WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF BREAKDOWNS 

The locomotive engineer, in addition to being com- 
petent to "run" his engine successfully oyer the route, 
according to the rules of the time card, keeping the 
water level in the boiler at the proper height, keeping 
the running gear of the engine properly lubricated, 
watching out for all signals, sources of danger, etc., 
should also be a man full of resources and determina- 
tion; resourceful, in order that he may be able to deal 
successfully with anyone of the many breakdowns that 
are liable to occur, and determined that when the 
breakdown does occur, he will if possible bring his 
engine in alive. 

A careful engineer will always inspect his engine 
before starting out, and in this way be able very often 
to prevent a serious breakdown. By making regular 
inspections a man will become so familiar with his 
engine, and especially with those parts that are the 
more liable to become disabled, that he can tell at a 
glance if there is anything wrong. Before leaving the 
roundhouse he should test all the rod keys, by trying 
to drive each one back with a copper hammer. In this 
manner any loose set screws will be at once detected. 
Out on the road he will be able to detect any derange- 
ment of the valve gear, such as a slipped eccentric, 
loose strap bolt or blade bolts, broken valve yoke or 
loose valve stem key by the sound of the exhaust. 

475 



476 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

Although it is the fireman's duty to see that th^ 
engine is properly supplied with fuel, water, and the 
necessary fire tools, lamps, signal oil, and sand, yet it 
is well for the engineer to see that all of these have 
been provided. There should be a pinch bar and a 
pair of jacks, an axe, and a hand saw for use in 
blocking. 

In fact, an engineer should know before starting on a 
trip that every thing about his engine is O.K. Then 
if a breakdown does occur out on the road he will have 
the satisfaction of knowing that he did his best to 
prevent it. 

Derangement of Valve Gear. If an engine suddenly 
begins to go "lame," it indicates that one of four 
things has happened. Either a dry valve, a slipped 
eccentric, a loose strap bolt, or an eccentric blade is 
loose and has slipped. If, after stopping and looking 
her over, it is found that none of the three last men- 
tioned things is the cause, and the engine is again 
started, and the exhaust sounds square, it shows that 
one of the valves was dry, and that when she was shut 
off, the oil remaining in the oil pipe was drawn into 
the valve chest by the vacuum. Sometimes the ex- 
haust will in time wear a hole in the petticoat pipe, 
and this will cause the exhaust to sound "lame," or 
the tumbling shaft may be sprung, which will cause a 
longer cut-off on one side than on the other. In this 
case there will be two heavy blasts on one side, and 
two light ones on the other side. 

Slipped Eccentric. Place one side of the engine on 
the center, as near as possible; either center will do. 
Put the reverse lever in extreme forward motion, and 
then, with a lead pencil or the point of a knife blade, 
make a mark on the valve stem at the gland. Now 



IN CASE OF BREAKDOWNS 477 

have the fireman put the lever in extreme backward 
motion, and if neither one of the eccentrics on that side 
has slipped, the mark will come back to very near the 
same position it was in when the lever was in forward 
motion. If it does not come within a quarter of an 
inch of its first position, the trouble is on that side, 
and if the original marks are on the eccentric and 
driver axle, the eccentric may be easily reset, but if 
there are no marks, the mark made on the valve stem 
at the gland will serve as a temporary guide in reset- 
ting the slipped eccentric. 

There are several ways of getting very close to the 
center. Move the engine till the center of main axle, 
main crank pin and cross-head pin are on the same 
exact line on that side; or till the centers of axles and 
centers of crank pins are on the same horizontal line; 
or till a straight edge on top and bottom of the main 
rod strap comes the same distance each side of the 
center of the main axle. Or, go to the other side of 
engine, place her on the quarter, measure from the 
center of the main axle to the center of back crank 
pin, and from the center of back axle to center of main 
crank pin, move the engine if necessary till the dis- 
tances are the same; the engine will be on the quarter 
on that side and the center on the other. 

Broken Eccentric, Eccentric Strap or Blade, Broken 
Valve Rod, Broken Rocker Arm, Broken Link or Pin. 
Take off both eccentric straps and rods on that side, 
fasten the top end of the link by tying it to the link 
hanger and tumbling shaft arm so that it cannot tumble 
over and interfere with reversing the engine. Place 
valve to cover steam ports, clamp the valve stem so it 
cannot move, disconnect the main rod and block the 
cross-head. With a heavy engine, a better way is to 



478 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

take off the eccentric straps; tie the top of the link to 
the top end of link hanger; block the valv^e in such a 
poEiiion that it will admit a very little steam to the 
back steam port to lubricate the cylinder; have the 
lubricator feeding to that side. Take out the cjdinder 
cocks or block them open on that side and any relief 
valves there may be in the forward cylinder head, 
leave the main rod up and proceed. If the engine 
gets caught on the center, close the cylinder cock 
opening in the back end'of cylinder; steam leaking by 
the valve will soon move her off the center; then open 
this cylinder cock and go ahead. 

Broken Reach Rod, or Arm of Tumbling Shaft. Put a 
very short block in the link on top of link block and a 
long one in the bottom end of link so that side will 
work full stroke. Do not block both links, only one. 
When the engine is moving, with both link hangers in 
position as they should be with a broken reach rod, at 
one point of the stroke one link tends to slip up on its 
block while the other link is slipping down. If both 
/inK3 aie blocked solid top and bottom, the tumbling 
shaft must bend or spring. To reverse the engine, put 
the long block in top of link. 

Broken Valve Seat. When a seat is broken the 
engine usually blows through on that side, how badly 
depends on what is broken and whether the valve is 
also broken. If the bridge or partition between the 
steam port to one end of the cylinder and the exhaust 
port is broken, when the valve uncovers that steam 
port live steam can get to the exhaust the full size of 
the broken place. If it is a false valve seat it may be 
broken so badly that steam will blow through in any 
position of the valve. When a valve seat breaks it 
usually catches the edge of the valve and springs the 



IN CASE OF BREAKDOWNS 479 

valve rod, the rocker arm or the eccentric blade, in 
which case an inspection of the engine should show 
the damaged parts that are outside the steam chest. 
If the valve catches so the engine cannot be reversed, 
it is an easy matter to locate the trouble by holding a 
hand on the valve rod while the lever is moved; if that 
side catches, it is soon felt. 

After locating the trouble, take up steam chest cover 
and block over the openings to keep steam from pass- 
ing through. A board covering both steam ports and 
the exhaust port will do this; in the case of a false 
seat taking out all the pieces, if they could not be 
fitted steam-tight. Usually the valve will have to be 
left out and a block fitted in between the board and 
steam chest cover to hold the board from rising up 
when engine is shut off and drifting. In the case of a 
balanced valve, the top of the valve comes so close to 
the pressure plate that the valve will not go in again 
with a board under it, nor can the broken false seat 
be taken out and the balanced slide valve be dropped 
on the cylinder casting, unless the top of valve is also 
blocked to keep steam out of the exhaust cavity of 
the valve. Some false seats are fastened to the cylin- 
der casting by tap bolts going into the lands and 
bridges between the ports, in which case the broken seat 
cannot be taken out, but must be covered so that steam 
cannot get by it. After locating the trouble, disconnect 
the engine on that side, taking down the main rod 
and blocking the crosshead. It is usually necessary to 
take off both eccentric straps and rods, as the bottom 
rocker arm may be bent out so the link will be cramped 
on the block. If, after disconnecting, the reverse lever 
cannot move both links easily, uncouple the link hanger 
on the disabled side from the tumbling shaft arm. 



48o LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

Broken Valve Yoke. A valve yoke usually breaks off 
at the neck of the valve stem. It can be readily dis- 
covered in the exhaust by a tremendous blow. If the 
valve is pushed far enough ahead it will blow; if not, 
it is often mistaken for a slipped eccentric (examine 
the eccentrics first). It may be discovered in this way: 
Place the crank-pin on top or bottom quarter and 
reverse the engine; if the steam still continues to come 
out of the back cylinder cock it is usually the yoke. 
A great diversity of opinion exists regarding the best 
remedy for this kind of a break. The old and safest 
way is to raise the chest cov^er and block the valve 
central, replace the cover, remove the valve rod and 
main rod and block the cross-head at the back end. 
But this remedy requires much time and labor, and 
time is a very important consideration on the road, 
and there appear to be no mechanical objections to 
the other methods, providing the cross-head is securely 
fastened. Disconnect the valve rod and push the valve 
clear ahead, remove the stem if it would blow out, and 
use a gasket back of the gland, or hold the valve stem 
intact with valve stem clamp. Block the cross-head at 
the front end, and proceed; the pressure will hold the 
valve forward and if it should move it can do no 
harm, providing the cross-head is securely blocked. 
Another way is to remove the release valve, push 
the valve clear back, fit a block into the release 
valve long enough to hold the valve back, then 
block cross-head at back end. Still another way is 
to push the valve stem forward and clamp it by 
cocking the gland, then block cross-head at the front 
end. If the yoke is only broken at one side of the 
valve it will only affect one exhaust- When the yoke 
Dashes the valve forward the exhaust will sound all 



IN CASE OF BREAKDOWNS 481 

right, but when it pulls the valve back the engine will 
be lame. 

Broken Cross-Head. A slight break, such as a gib or 
plate, may sometimes be clamped, but be careful that 
the clamp does not strike the guide block at extreme 
travel of the cross-head. If it is a bad break discon- 
nect the broken side. If the piston is not broken push 
it against the forward cylinder head and then block the 
cross-head in that position. If the cross-head is broken 
so that the cross-head cannot be blocked, the safest 
way is to remove the piston. If it cannot be taken 
out set the valve so as to admit steam to the back end 
of cylinder only, and clamp valve stem securely in this 
position. 

Broken Main Rod or Strap. Disconnect on the broken 
side. 

Broken Side Rod or Strap. Remove the broken rod 
and the parallel rod directly opposite to it. If it is a 
ten-wheeled engine and this cannot be done, remove 
all the side rods. If a front or back rod or strap on a 
twelve-wheeled engine, remove the broken rod and 
the one directly opposite to it, if this can be done, and 
leave the others up. 

Broken Cylinder Heads. Back Head. Disconnect the 
engine on broken side. If it is necessary to remove 
the guides and broken head, then remove the piston 
also. 

Forward Head. Disconnect that side of the engine. 
Another method advocated by many, but practiced by 
few, by which three-fourths of the power of the engine 
could be retained, is to remove the steam chest cover 
and plug up the forward steam port with wood and 
proceed working both sides. This method is imprac- 
ticable, owing to the shape of the steam Dort cavity on 



482 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

most engines, and the time it would require, as time is 
usually the most important factor, besides the im- 
probability of the block remaining intact. 

Broken Guides, Blocks or Bolts. If any of the bolts 
break, try and replace them. See that all nuts are 
tight, or they may be the cause of springing the piston 
rod. If a guide bar is broken badly, disconnect one 
side. 

Broken Guide Yoke. If a yoke is bent or broken and 
will not hold the guides secure, disconnect one side. 

Disconnecting One Side. This necessarily implies that 
the engine is to continue its trip. Remove the main 
rod on one side and place the liners and brasses back 
in the straps. Secure the cross-head near the back end 
of the guides with a cross-head clamp, or with hard 
wooden blocks, securing the blocks with a rope so they 
cannot work out. Don't move the cross-head clear 
back to the striking point, as the cylinder packing rings 
may get down into the port or counterbore. Remove 
the valve rod and secure the valve stem with a valve stem 
clamp, set the valve central upon its seat and cramp 
the valve stem by tightening the gland on one side. 
Most engines that use metallic packing are supplied 
with a valve-stem clamp made to hold the valve cen- 
tral upon its seat; but the valve can easily be set to 
cover the ports by opening the cylinder cocks and 
giving the engine a little steam. Then adjust the 
valve stem until steam is entirely shut off from both 
cylinder cocks. Do not remove the eccentric straps 
or side rods unless it is necessary. Whenever the 
eccentric straps are removed on one side, the top of the 
link, should be tied to the short arm of the tumbling 
shaft to keep it from tipping over, which would pre- 
vent reversing the engine. If it is necessary to take 



IN CASE OF BREAKDOWNS 483 

one side rod down, remove the one directly opposite 
lo it; if this cannot be done, then remove all the side 
rods. Do not remove the eccentric blades, leaving 
the straps on the eccentrics, unless they will whirl and 
clear everything in all positions; otherwise they might 
punch holes in the firebox. 

If the side rods have been removed from a ten- 
wheeled engine, or pony engine, see that the forward 
crank-pins will clear the cross-head in all positions; it 
not, take no chances, but disconnect both sides, block- 
ing both cross-heads clear forward or wherever they 
will clear the crank-pins and have the engine towed 
in. 

Broken Driving Spring or Hanger." If the engine is 
raised with jacks, block up the end of the equalizer 
that had been connected to broken part, so that it is a 
little higher than it was before, to allow for settling. 
It is customary also to block up between driving box 
and frame at the box where spring is broken. If it is 
the forward box, it puts the load on that box, which 
ma)^ be too much. It is better to block up over a back 
driving box, no matter which spring is broken, as the 
weight is carried there the best. If the engine is 
raised by running up on blocks or wedges, put block 
on top of the box that is under broken spring first, if 
possible, then run that wheel up on a wedge until 
engine is raised so that the equalizer can be blocked 
up level again; then put block over box, also, to carry 
what weight of engine the spring still at work on that 
side would not hold up; take out the broken spring or 
hanger if necessary. If equalizer is under frame and 
boxes, block under end that will hold it in proper 
place. If the reach rod is pinched so that the reverse 
lever cannot move the links, it mav be necessary to 



484 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

vake out the pin holding the reach rod to the tumbling 
shaft arm and handle the linjcs otherwise. 

Disconnecting Both Sides. This implies that the 
engine is dead and must be towed in. Remove both 
main rods and both valve rods, but it will not be 
necessary to block either, if the crank pins clear the 
cross-heads. Do not remove the side rods or eccentric 
straps unless it is necessary; and when it is considered 
necessary be sure to take the precautions previously 
explained. 

In freezing weather, if the fire is down, all water 
should be drained out of the injectors, pumps, feed 
and branch pipes. If there are not frost plugs, slack 
the joints and let the water out. If there is danger of 
the water freezing in the boiler, run it out of both 
boiler and tank. See that all oil cups are well filled 
before starting. Almost all roads are very strict regard- 
ing the speed of dead or disconnected engines, as the 
engine is not then counterbalanced perfectly, and is 
therefore very injurious to the track. Some of the 
best roads limit the speed of all heavy engines which 
are disconnected on one or both sides, or which have 
the side rods removed, or dead engines hauled in a 
train, to twenty miles per hour. 

Broken Equalizers. Raise the engine the same as for 
a broken spring or hanger when possible to do so. If 
an equalizer on a standard eight-wheeled engine, block 
on top of one box and block up the loose end of the 
equalizer, when possible, the same as for a broken 
spring or hanger; if it cannot be used, remove the 
equalizer and block on top of both boxes. If an 
equalizer is below the frame, do likewise, or chain it 
up. If forward equalizer on a ten-wheeled engine, 
block on top of the forward and main boxes, and block 



I 



IN CASE OF BREAKDOWNS 485 

up forward end of back equalizer. If it is the cross 
equalizer on a mogul, block on top of both forward 
boxes and block on top of the back end of the long 
intermediate equalizer that goes to the truck. If the 
intermediate equalizer breaks, block between the 
boiler and the cross equalizer. If it is the cross equal- 
izer on a four-wheeled pony, block on top of both for- 
ward boxes. When this equalizer is below or between 
the frames it is sometimes possible to block between 
the hangers and* the frame. If a small equalizer that 
rides the back box, block on top of the back box and 
chain up the back end of the bottom equalizer. If it 
is a truck equalizer, block on top of truck boxes 
between the box and truck frame. Always remove or 
secure all loose parts. 

Broken Equalizer Stands. If the stand breaks, then 
use the same remedy as for a broken equalizer, but if 
only the bolts. break find some old bolts to replace 
them, or take bolts off some other part of the engine 
that will fit, and the loss of which will not impair the 
working of the other parts. 

Broken Engine Truck Spring Hanger or Center Casting. 
If a four-wheel engine truck, block over the equalizers 
and under the top bar of engine truck frame close to 
band of spring, high enough so the engine will ride 
level with the other side. With a mogul, over the 
truck box. If the engine truck center casting breaks 
on a standard engine, block across under truck frame 
and center casting and over equalizers, from one side 
to the other; a couple of pieces of rail, 4^ or 5 ft. 
Jong, may come handy for this purpose. Or, put a 
solid block under the engine frame next to the saddle 
and on top of the truck frame on each side. This 
plan will give the use of the engine truck springs, 



486 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

although it does not always hold the center casting up 
against the male casting under the smoke arch, so the 
engine will track straight. 

In case it becomes necessary to remove an engine 
truck entirely from a mogul or consolidation engine, 
proceed as follows: Block between the cross equalizer 
and bottom of the boiler; with the engine in this con- 
dition, she should be run carefully, as there is quite an 
additional load on the front driving boxes. 

Broken Engine Truck Wheel, or Axle. If a piece is 
broken out of the wheel, it can be skidded to next side 
track by laying a tie in front of the pair of wheels. If 
an axle is broken or a wheel is broken off outside of 
the box, you can chain that corner of the engine truck 
up to the engine frame, being careful to chain so as to 
crowd the good wheel against the rail, and put a block 
between the top of the engine truck and bottom of the 
engine frame, on the other end of the same side of 
truck, in order to put the weight on that part of the 
truck. 

Broken Back Spring on Consolidation Engine. Run 
the driver up on a wedge; pry up the back end of the 
equalizer and block between it and rail of frame; then 
run the back driver off the wedge and the next driver 
up on it, and block between the back driving box and 
the frame. 

Broken Front or Back Section of a Side Rod on a Con- 
solidation Engine. A consolidation engine has a 
knuckle joint between the first and second, and third 
and fourth pairs of drivers. In case of a section on 
either end breaking, remove the broken parts and the 
corresponding section on the other side. Be sure that 
the forward crank pin will clear the cross-head in all 
positions before moving the engine. 



IN CASE OF BREAKDOWNS 487 

Broken or Loose Tire on Standard Eight- Wheel Engine. 

If a main tire breaks or becomes loose, raise the wheel 
center up off the rail a little higher than the thickness 
of the tire, to allow for the engine settling when 
blocked up; take out the oil cellar so the journal will 
not get cut on the edges of the cellar; put a solid 
block of wood between the pedestal brace and journal 
to hold the wheel center up clear of the rail; block up 
over the back driving box so the engine could not set- 
tle or get down so as to allow the wheel center to 
strike the rail. It will take a good deal of strain off 
the pedestal brace to put a block under the spring sad- 
dle on top of the frame. Taking out this driving 
spring makes a sure job; take off all other broken or 
disabled parts; if the rods are in good order, leave 
them up. If a back tire breaks, block up in the same 
manner as for a main tire, except that blocking comes 
next to the other journals and boxes. 

Broken Main Rod. Remove the broken parts, block 
the cross-head back to within one-half inch of clear- 
ance to keep the cylinder packing out of the counter 
bore, disconnect cylinder-cock rod on disabled side and 
block the cocks open. Shift the valve in the same 
direction as piston if it is a slide valve or outside- 
admission piston valve, and in the opposite direction if 
it is an inside-admission piston valve. An easy way 
to remember and distinguish a direct from an indirect 
motion is in the position of the rocker arm. With the 
indirect, one arm is above and the other below the 
rocker box; with the direct, both arms are either above 
or below the rocker box. In moving the valve give it 
just enough opening to show steam at the cylinder 
cock, which will take the pressure off the blocking. 

Broken Frame. For a broken frame ahead of a main 



488 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

driver, disconnect the valve stem on disabled side, 
cover ports and leave up the main rod. Bring the 
engine in light with the good side. If the break is 
behind the main driver, take down the side rods on rear 
section only, if a consolidation engine. With a mogul 
type and the knuckle pin on forward section of side 
rod, take down all side rods. 

Broken Draw Bar. If the engine has safety chains 
they will hold the tank, but not always a heavy train. 
If the engine is not equipped with safety chains, then 
secure a chain from the tank box or caboose and chain 
the tank to the deck. Safety chains should not have 
more than 4-in. of slack. 

Broken Driving Brass. If a driving brass breaks and 
is cutting badly, run that wheel up on a" thin wedge; 
then use an iron block between the top of frame and 
the spring saddle, which will take the weight off that 
box. 

Broken "Wedge Bolt. It is sometimes possible to 
screw the nut half-way onto each part of the broken 
bolt and thereby hold it up in place. If this cannot be 
done, then with a wire try to fasten a nut under the 
wedge to hold it up. 

Broken Tender Wheel or Axle. Find a piece of a rail 
the proper length, or a cross tie will answer, place it 
across the top of the tank directly over the broken pair 
of wheels, block under the rail or tie to protect the 
flange on the top of the tender, jack up the broken 
pair of wheels to clear the rail and while in this posi- 
tion chain the truck to the rail above the tank on both 
sides. 

Broken Crank Pin. With a broken main crank-pin, 
on any class of engine, take down all side rods and be 
sure that the crank-pin on the forward wheel does not 



IN CASE OF BREAKDOWNS 489 

interfere with the cross-head in blocking the latter. 
With the back crank-pin on a consolidation or a ten- 
wheel engine, proceed as with a broken side rod, but if 
the crank-pin of an intermediate, otherwise known as 
driver No. 2, take down all side rods and run in light 
with the main rods up. Remember that taking down 
one section and not the other on the opposite side is 
dangerous; there is nothing to pull the wheel on the 
good side off the dead center. In only one case is this 
permissible — when the eccentrics are on the first or 
leading, and the main rod on the second or main drivers. 
In this instance if the forward section, with a solid 
end, breaks, the other side is to be left up so as to con- 
trol the valve motion on the good side; but the valve 
gear on the crippled side must be disconnected. 

Broken Cross Head. If the break is with a four-bar 
guide or a Laird guide with yoke, block ahead and let 
the main rod rest in yoke; but the butt end brass and 
strap must come down, otherwise the rod would inter- 
fere with main pin. If the cross-head is of the alli- 
gator type and the yoke secured near the middle of the 
guide, block back and take down the main rod. It is 
always a good plan to allow enough port opening, in 
blocking valves central, to admit a little steam against 
the piston in the direction of the blocking. Remem- 
ber also that an outside admission valve is pushed in 
the same direction as the piston, and an inside admis- 
sion in the opposite direction. 

Broken Eccentrics, Straps and Blades. With a broken 
go-ahead eccentric or blade, take down the back-up 
eccentric also. If the back-up eccentric is not dis- 
turbed the link lifter must be taken down. With a 
broken back-up eccentric, strap or blade, the go-ahead 
eccentric need not come down, but the engine must bo 



490 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

run with a full cut-off and no attempt made to bring 
the lever back to the center of quadrant. 

Disconnected or Broken Throttle Rod. This is gener- 
ally regarded as a very serious mishap, but the serious- 
ness depends entirely upon the nature of the break. 
If the throttle is open and cannot be closed, reduce 
the steam pressure to a point where the engine can be 
controlled with the reverse lever. It is a good plan 
to have some cars connected to the engine, in 
order to get the benefit of the brakes in case an 
attempt is made to run the engine in with a broken 
throttle. 

Sometimes the valve becomes tilted or cocked and 
will not close. In such a case tapping the throttle rod 
with a hammer will sometimes bring it back to its seat. 

If the throttle is closed and will not open it is very 
likely that the rod is disconnected inside the boiler, in 
which case the only remedy is to kill the fire, and pre- 
pare to be towed in, unless the company requires the 
engineers to make repairs. 

Broken Whistle Stand. A broken whistle stand means 
a dead engine. Remove the broken part from the 
dome. A handy thing to have around an engine is a 
wash-out plug and several sizes of reducers. In the 
absence of a wash-out plug use the reducer in the dome 
cap, then take the nipple and angle cock off an air- 
braked car and insert into the reducer. 

Broken Steam Chest or Cover. When the break is not 
a bad one, wedging between the chest and bolts is 
som.etimes successful, but where the break is a bad 
one, remove the cover, block the supply ports, which 
on modern engines are at each end of the cylinder, 
with blocking of sufficient thickness to be held down 
by cover, disconnect the valve stem only, block the 



IN CASE OF BREAKDOWNS 491 

cylinder cocks open, and proceed on one side. The 
same method applies to a broken cover. 

Metallic Packing Giving Out on the Road. Take off 
the stuffing box or packing case, or whatever it maj- 
be called, and if any of the old packing is left, leave a 
ring of it in the cone or cup; then make, out of wick- 
ing or old overalls, a ring of packing sufficiently large 
to fill the balance of the space in the cone, after which 
push the cone back against the "follower" on the end 
of the spring, put on the stuffing box and go along. 

Broken Piston Gland Studs. On some of the old power 
in use on many railways, the fibrous packing is still 
used to quite an extent, and failure of the gland studs 
from one cause or another is not uncommon. When 
this occurs on engines having the four bar type of 
guides, the stuffing box should be partially filled, so 
that the gland would go well into it, then by driving a 
long taper wedge of iron, one on each side, between 
guides and gland, it (the gland) can be fastened 
securely and, if the wedges are driven carefully, set 
squarely. Wedges usually used to secure brake shoes 
to heads are very suitable for this purpose, but if they 
are not to be had, any piece of iron of the proper 
thickness and a little taper can be used. If only one 
stud is broken, fill the stuffing box as above, and if it is 
the top stud, use a piece of board to block from the 
oil cup on each guide to the top of the gland, driving 
a wooden wedge between back of the gland and cylin- 
der head to prevent the gland wiggling and working 
blocks out. Never disconnect, or give . up a train for 
this sort of failure. 

Broken Piston Rod. Time can be saved when this 
occurs by doing just what is necessary and no more. 
If the rod breaks at the cross-head, as is usually th« 



492 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

case, or near the piston, and the whole thing is blown 
out, cylinder head and all, just disconnect the valve 
rod and cover the ports, and go along. 

Broken Driving Brass. Run the wheel upon a frog or 
wedge and block up between the frame and spring sad- 
dle, to take the weight as much as possible off the box. 

With an engine having underhung springs there is 
no saddle to block under, and in a case of this kind 
place a jack under the equalizers nearest to the broken 
brass, then block the other end between the frame 
and the equalizer and remove the spring under the 
broken brass if possible. 

Broken Driving Axle. This occurs usually close to 
the wheel and outside of the driving box. If it is a 
broken main driving axle, all rods on the disabled side 
and all side rods on the good side must come down. 
With any other driving axle, only such rods should 
come down as would give trouble to the rest of the 
rods. 

To block up the axle on the broken side, remove the 
cellar and put a wooden block between the axle and 
the binder brace. If a hydraulic or screw jack is 
handy, raise the axle and driving box, if it has an 
overhung spring and block under the spring saddle 
above the frame to take the weight off the driving box. 
Use sponging on the sides of the blocking under axle 
or, better still, hot main-pin grease. 

Water Glass Out of Order. If the water line in the 
glass is not in sight, and moving up and down when 
the engine is in motion, it indicates that the water 
glass valves are either stopped up or closed, and 
require immediate attention. 

The blow-out cock at the bottom should be opened. 
If the water line now shows in the glass, and then sud- 



IN CASE OF BREAKDOWNS 493 

denly rises out of sight when the blow-out cock is 
closed, it indicates that the water level in the boiler is 
higher than the top end of the glass. If only steam 
or a mixture of steam and water passes out through 
the blow-out cock it is evidence that the water in the 
boiler is too low, and if no water shows in the glass 
when blow-out cock is closed, the fire should be dead- 
ened at once. Every engine should be equipped with 
gauge cocks, and they should be tried every ten or fif- 
teen miles passed over on the route. 

If gauge cocks and lower water glass valve are 
stopped up, get engine and train off the main line 
onto a siding as soon as possible. Deaden or dump 
the fire, and report conditions. No engine should be 
worked in that condition. 

If an Engine Works Water. Close the throttle a 
little at a time, until the water ceases to pass over into 
the cylinders. If it was foaming this would stop the 
trouble in the cylinders and the water level in the 
boiler would drop at once. If the boiler was pumped 
too full the water level would be above the gauge 
cocks. 

When the Boiler Foams Badly. There is danger of 
knocking out cylinder heads, cutting the valves, stall- 
ing on some grade, or getting on some train's time 
because the engine cannot be worked to its proper 
power. There is also danger of burning the crown 
sheet when the water drops low enough to uncover it. 

Broken Blow-off Cock, or Hole Broken in the Boiler. 
Either dump the fire or smother it with wet coal; get 
steam and water out of the boiler as quickly as pos- 
sible. If the blow-off cock is broken off it may be 
plugged, but if it is blown out, it would be impractica- 
ble to plug the opening, and the only method is to 



494 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

treat such a case the same as with a hole knocked in 
the boiler, viz. : Disconnect the engine and be towed in. 

If the water supply in the tender fails while out on 
the road away from a water tank, in warm weather, if 
possible, bail enough water into the tank to get to a 
water tank, and then fill up the tank. If in winter, 
and there is snow on the ground, shovel snow into 
the tank and melt it with steam from the boiler. If 
impossible to get water by the methods explained, 
draw the fire, disconnect the engine and be towed in. 

If after getting a supply of water in the tank, the 
fire being dumped, and no steam in the boiler, it is 
found that the water level in boiler is below the crown 
sheet, the boiler may be refilled in the following man- 
ner by towing the dead engine with another engine. 
To do this, stop up all the openings where the outside 
air can get into the boiler or cylinders and steam 
chests (whistle, relief valves, etc.), open the throttle 
and steam and water connections to the injectors, put 
the reverse lever the way the engine is going and be 
sure to have her towed fast enough to create a vacuum 
in the boiler by the cylinders pumping the air out. 
The boiler can also be filled by connecting a hose to 
the overflow or delivery pipe of the injector on the live 
engine, and then to the suction pipe of the injector of 
the dead engine, or through the whistle or safety 
valve. A great many modern engines have wash-out 
plugs high enough to fill boiler to one gauge. 

If an Injector "Will Not Work. Be sure the injector 
gets a full supply of steam; the steam throttle may be 
only partially open. Some injector steam pipes are 
coupled to a turret; if the valve between the boiler 
and the turret is partly closed the injector may not 
get a full supply of steam and will not pick up the 



IN CASE OF BREAKDOWNS 495 

water. In this case a full supply of water is passing 
through the injector, but there is not sufficient steam to 
force the water into the boiler. 

Examine the tank to see how much water there is in 
it; if plenty there, examine the hose, strainers and 
supply pipe to see if the injector could get the proper 
supply of water promptly; next, see if there were any 
leaks that would let air get into the supply pipe of a 
lifting injector; last, see if any foreign substance has 
got into the injector and choked any of the passages. 

If an Injector Will Not Prime. The water may be all 
out of the tank, or the tank valve disconnected; air 
may be leaking into the supply pipe, the overflow 
valve stopped up or choked some; or the jet of steam 
may not pass exactly through the middle of the tube 
which exhausts air or starts the flow of the water. 

If an Injector Primes Well, and Then Loses Its Priming 
When Steam Is Turned On Full. The boiler check valve 
may be stuck shut so the water cannot get away from 
the injector, the tubes may be coated with lime so they 
are too small or not of the proper shape, the tubes 
may be loose so they are not in line, or the supply of 
water may not be sufficient to condense all the steam; 
this may be on account of the feed water being hot. 

When the boiler check valve sticks open or allows 
the boiler pressure to back up to the injector, jar the 
check case or delivery pipe a little so the check valve 
will settle into its seat. If it does not seat tight but 
leaks back, report its condition on arrival at terminal. 
Sometimes something will get into the delivery pipe 
and work under the check valve, holding it open; when 
the check is ground in, this foreign substance, which 
may be a part of the injector, will drop back into the 
delivery pipe and lie there till the injector is worked 



496 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

the next time, when it will get under the valve and 
hold it up again. Take off the delivery pipe and clean 
it out. 

In Case of Bursted Flue. Dump the fire and lower the 
steam pressure as soon as possible in order to save the 
water in the boiler, then proceed to plug the flue with 
an iron plug if one is available. If no iron plug is at 
hand, use a wooden one, driving it into the flue for 
some distance. It will not burn, because no air can 
get at it. By putting on the blower slightly and put- 
ting a plank down on the grates, a man can often suc- 
ceed in plugging a flue before the pressure is all out of 
the boiler. 

Care should be exercised in driving an iron plug not 
to drive too hard, as there is danger of cracking the 
flue sheet. 

In case of a boiler in which the flues are old and 
inclined to leak at the beads, pump the boiler as regu- 
larly as possible; have a bright, even fire; use great 
care that no cold air strikes the flues through the door 
or through holes in the fire near the flue sheet. Keep 
an even pressure of steam, as this means a steady 
temperature in the firebox. If possible, when going 
into the round house, leave two or three inches of fire 
on the grate after shaking out the old dead fire. This 
fire will die out slowly, so the fire box and flues will 
cool off slowly. The dampers should be closed after 
going into the house. 

Be very careful in the use of the blower, that no cold 
air is drawn against the flues; this especially applies to 
the operation of cleaning the fire. Cold air contracts 
the flues, also the metal of the flue sheet, which causes 
them to begin leaking at once. 

In Case the Lubricator Refuses to Work. First, see if 



IN CASE OF BREAKDOWNS 497 

the steam valve to the boiler is open, then shut off the 
water valve from the condenser and open the drip valve 
in bottom of the oil tank; this would blow the water 
out of the glasses into the oil tank, with some makes of 
cups, and as soon as the glass filled up with water they 
might feed again. Or, shut off steam and water valve 
and open drip cock, then give engine steam and have 
steam from steam chest blow through the chokes, and 
clean them out. With the new style of cups having 
check valves, open the drip from the glass, blow it 
out clean and refill it with water. Lubricators usually 
stop feeding because some small openings are stopped 
up or something is wrong inside the cup. 

The successful lubrication of valves and cylinders on 
long runs, with engines run at short points of cut-off, 
has been quite a difficult problem, and new ideas are 
being brought out all the time, and if the engineer is 
to be able to keep up with the rapid changes and 
developments that are coming along, it will be neces- 
sary for him to watch the lubricator question sharply. 

Under certain conditions, the oil, as it is fed from 
the cup into sight feeders, does not pass to the steam 
chest direct, but this is no excuse whatever for running 
a dry valve, because a man who knows his business, in 
case of his valves getting a little dry, will ease off, 
almost shut off, for one second. This will drop the 
steam chest pressure, probably to about one-half of 
what it is ordinarily, at which time the strain at the 
lubricator will blow the oil and water from the pipe 
into the steam chest. The loss of time necessary to 
do this will not amount to as much in a trip as running 
a partially dry valve one mile would. 

Engines that are being worked at a long cut-off do 
not» as a rule, give any trouble on account of valves 



498 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

running dry, because the pulsations of the steam chest 
pressure will render it impossible for water or oil to 
remain in one position in the pipe; it will work down, 
and in a few minutes after the lubricator is started the 
valves will receive the oil as regularly as it is fed from 
the cup. 

The cases wherein the oil does not feed down regu- 
larly are when high pressure engines are run at high 
speed and short cut-off under full throttle. This can 
be explained in a few words, as follows: In the first 
place, when an engine is being run as above, the steam 
chests have almost boiler pressure and the steam that 
is admitted before the piston gets to the limit of its 
travel is, by the process of compression, to a certain 
extent, driven back into the steam chest, the effect of 
which is, owing to the necessary frequency of such 
action at high speed, that the steam chest pressure is 
stimulated to that extent that it is, perhaps, slightly 
higher, or at least equal to boiler pressure, in which 
case condensation will take place in the oil pipe near 
the steam chest and work upward; then the oil that 
leaves the lubricator will descend in the pipe, only 
until it comes in contact with the water in the same, 
and will remain there until the throttle is eased or shut 
off. 

Broken Main Valve Rod. Put the valve on the center 
of the seat, so that it will cover all the ports on that 
side; disconnect the main-rod and block the cross-head 
the same as for simple engine. 



BREAEIDOWNS ON COMPOUND ENGINES, VATTGLAIK 

Both High-Pressure Cylinder Heads Gone. If th^ 

stuffing-box could be made steam-tight, the steam 



IN CASE OF BREAKDOWNS 499 

valves would supply live steam direct to the low- 
pressure cylinders, but it would be doubtful if it could 
be done, owing to the lack of material for the same on 
an engine. 

Broken High-Pressure Cylinder Head. Block the valve 
on the disabled side in its central position so as to 
cover the ports, disconnect the main rod and block 
the cross-head the same as with a simple engine. Run 
in with the other side, working compound if possible 
and simple if necessary, as it probably will be. 

Broken High-Pressure Piston Rod or Piston Head. 
Remove the broken piston and rod and plug up the 
piston-rod hole in the cylinder-head from the inside 
with a wooden plug; then replace the head or heads 
and run in light. 

Broken Low-Pressure Cylinder Head. Run with the 
starting-valve in compound. This would give the 
simple engine of the dimensions of the high-pressure 
cylinder. The exhaust from the high-pressure would 
necessarily go through the low-pressure cylinder and 
to the stack; but it would be very serious on the fire 
and would reduce the steam. 

Broken Low-Pressure Piston Head or Piston Rod. Re- 
move the piston and rod and plug the piston-rod hole 
and run light with the starting-valve in compound. 

Baldwin Two-Cylinder Compounds. Broken Main Rod, 
High-Pressure Side. Remove the broken rod, block the 
cross-head at the back end of the guide, clamp the 
high-pressure valve in the center to cover both ports. 
Place the engineer's operating valve at point marked 
"simple." The steam will then pass through the 
reducing valve to the receiver and thence to the low- 
pressure cylinder. 

Broken Main Rod, Low-Pressure Side. Remove the 



500 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

broken rod, block the cross-head at the back end of the 
guide, disconnect the valve rod and close the plug 
cock in the pipe leading to the intercepting valve. 
Place the engineer's operating valve at the point 
marked "compound.'' The steam vc^ill then act in the 
high-pressure cylinder and pass to the exhaust without 
entering the low-pressure cylinder. 

For Valve Stem on Either Side. The same remedy as 
for a broken rod. 

For the Intercepting and the Reducing Valve. The 
intercepting and reducing valves are automatically 
operated by steam pressure. Access can be easily had 
to either of these valves by removing the head of their 
respective cylinders, and any failure of the valve to act 
can be readily ascertained and remedied. 

Schenectady Cross Compound. Broken Main Rod, High* 
Pressure Side. Remove the broken rod, blocking the 
cross-head at the front end of the guides. Clamp the 
high-pressure valve forward to clear the exhaust port; 
the steam will then pass through the exhaust port on 
the high-pressure side into the receiver, thence to the 
low-pressure steam chest. The low-pressure cylinder 
then acts as a high-pressure engine. Open the throt- 
tle valve moderately on account of the large area of 
low-pressure cylinder. 

Broken Main Rod, Low-Pressure Side. Remove the 
broken rod, secure the cross-head at the back end of 
the guides; clamp the low-pressure valve back far 
enough to clear the exhaust port. Exhaust steam can 
then pass through the low-pressure cylinder and out 
through the stack. 

Broken Valve Stem o?i Either Side. The same remedy 
as for a main rod on that side; also remove the main 
rod and secure it as previously instructed. 



IN CASE OF BREAKDOWNS 501 

hitercepting Valve Disabled. Should the interceptiftgi 
valve become disabled, clamp the poppet valve open, 
if possible; if not, then remove the back head from the 
intercepting valve steam cylinder, and push the piston 
forward, putting in a block to hold 't in that position; 
then put on the head, which will prevent the steam in 
the receiver closing the poppet valve. The same may 
be done with the small piston which moves the valve, 
admitting steam to the intercepting valve steam cylin- 
der; this will also prevent closing the poppet. Live 
steam would then be admitted to both cylinders for 
starting. 

Baldwin Tandem Compound. Broken Cylinder Head. 
This would be a very serious case, and it would be 
necessary to clamp the valves centrally over the ports 
on the damaged side, and go in on one side. 

To Test for Leaks and Blows. The Baldwin tandem 
compound is tested in the same manner as other 
tandems. 

Questions 

551. What are the qualifications in general that a 
locomotive engineer should possess? 

552. What will a careful engineer always do before 
starting out with his engine? 

553. What should he do with the rod keys before 
leaving the roundhouse? 

554. What special tools should be carried on the 
tender, to be used in case of breakdowns? 

555. When an engine suddenly begins to go lame in 
her exhaust, what does it indicate? 

556. How is a dry valve easily detected? 

557. Mention some other causes besides those 



502 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

previously enumerated that may be responsible for a 
lame exhaust. 

558. If an eccentric has slipped, how may it be 
located and reset? 

559. If it is necessary while out on the road to place 
the engine on a center, how may it be done in a hurry? 

560. What is to be done in case of a broken eccen- 
tric, or a broken valve rod? 

561. If the reach rod, or arm of tumbling shaft, 
should get broken, what should be done? 

562. When a valve seat becomes broken, what should 
be done? 

563. At what point does a valve yoke usually break? 

564. How may a broken valve yoke be discovered? 

565. Mention several remedies for this kind of a 
breakdown. 

566. How may a broken gib or plate on the cross- 
head be taken care of? 

567. If the cross-head is badly broken, what should 
be done? 

568. What is the only remedy for a broken main 
rod, or strap? 

569. In case of a broken side rod or strap, what 
should be done? 

570. What is necessary in case of a broken bacfi 
cylinder head? 

571. In case a forward cylinder head breaks, what 
may be done? 

572. What is to be done with broken guides, blocks, 
or bolts? 

573. If a guide yoke is bent or broken, what should 
be done? 

574. What is implied when but one side is discon- 
nected? 



IN CASE OF BREAKDOWNS 503 

575. How should the cross-head be secured when 
one side is disconnected? 

576. What is to be done with the valve in case one 
side is disconnected? 

577. If it is necessary to remove the eccentric straps, 
what mustt)e done with the link? 

578. If it becomes necessary to take down one side 
rod, what must be done with the one opposite to it? 

579. If the eccentric blades are removed and the 
straps left on the eccentrics, what precautions should 
be taken? 

580. If the side rods on a ten wheeler have been 
removed, what precaution must be taken? 

581. In case of a broken driving spring or hanger, 
what method should be pursued, if the engine is jacked 
up? 

582. If the engine has been raised by running her up 
on blocks, what is the best method of procedure? 

583. When both sides are disconnected, what is 
implied? 

584. In case the engine must be towed in, and the 
weather is freezing, what precautions should be taken? 

585. How is a standard eight wheeler to be blocked 
up in case of a broken equalizer? 

586. If the engine is a ten wheeler, how is a broken 
forward equalizer to be blocked? 

587. If an intermediate equalizer on a mogul breaks, 
what is to be done? 

588. If a cross equalizer on a four-wheeled pony 
engine breaks, how is it to be blocked? 

589. If a truck equalizer breaks, how is it tc be taken 
care of? 

590. If an equalizer stand breaks, what is the remedy? 

591. In case of a broken engine truck spring hanger 



S04 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

or center casting on a four-wheel truck, how is it to be 
blocked? 

592. How should a mogul engine truck be blocked, 
if spring hanger is broken? 

593. If engine truck casting breaks, what should be 
done? 

594. How may a mogul or consolidation engine be 
blocked so as to run, in case it is necessary to remove 
the engine truck entirely? 

595. What may be done with a broken engine truck 
wheel or axle? 

596. What is to be done in case of a broken back 
spring on a consolidation engine? 

597. How may a consolidation engine be fixed up so as 
torun with a broken front or back section of a side rod? 

598. What is to be done with a broken or loose tire 
on an eight wheeler? 

599. What is the best method to pursue in case of a 
broken main rod? 

600. Mention an easy way to remember and distin- 
guish a direct from an indirect valve motion. 

601. In case of a broken frame, what should be done? 

602. What may be used to replace a broken draw 
bar? 

603. What should be done when a driving brass 
breaks? 

604. What may be done in case of a broken wedge 
bolt? 

605. When a tender wheel or axle breaks, what may 
be done to enable the engine to proceed? 

606. What is to be done with any class of engine in 
case of a broken main crank-pin? 

607. When the back crank-pin of a consolidation or 
ten-wheeled engine is broken, what is to be done? 



IN CASE OF BREAKDOWNS 505 

608. If the broken pin is on an intermediate driver, 
what must be done? 

609. What should always be remembered when dis- 
connecting an engine? 

610. Under what conditions is it permissible to dis- 
connect a section of one side, and not the same section 
on the opposite side? 

611. What is to be done with a broken cross-head if 
the guide is a four bar, or Laird guide? 

612. If the cross-head is of the alligator type, what 
should be done? 

613. What is a good thing to remember when block- 
ing valves central? 

614. What must be done when a go-ahead eccentric, 
strap, or blade breaks? 

615. In case of a broken back-up eccentric, strap, or 
blade, what is necessary? 

616. What may be said of a broken or disconnected 
throttle rod? 

617. If the throttle is open and cannot be closed, 
what should be done? 

618. What is a good plan to pursue in case an 
attempt is made to run in with a broken throttle? 

619. If the throttle becomes tilted or cocked, how 
may it sometimes be seated? 

620. If the throttle is closed and will not open, what 
is the only remedy? 

621. What does a broken whistle stand mean? 

622. What is a handy thing to have around an 
engine? 

623. With a broken steam chest or cover, what 
methods may be pursued? 

624. In case of metallic packing giving out on the 
road, what is to be done? 



5o6 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

625. When a piston gland is broken, how may the 
break be remedied? 

626. What should never be done in case of this sort 
of a breakdown ? 

627. What should be done when a piston breaks? 

628. What is to be done in case of a broken driving- 
brass? 

629. If the engine has underhung springs, and a 
driving brass breaks, what should be done? 

630. At what point does a driving axle usually 
break? 

631. If a main driving axle is broken, what must be 
done? 

632. If the broken axle is not a main driving axle, 
what should be done? 

633. How is an engine with a broken driving axle to 
be blocked up? 

634. If the water line in the glass is not in sight and 
moving, what does it indicate? 

635. What should be done immediately in this case? 

636. How is too high a level of water in the boiler 
indicated? 

637. What indicates too low a level of water in the 
boiler? 

638. If no water shows in the glass when the blow- 
out cock is closed, what should be done at once? 

639. W^hat should always be done with the gauge 
cocks? 

640. If both the water glass and gauge cocks are 
stopped up, what should be done as soon as possible? 

6ai. What should be done in case an engine works 
<vater? 

642. What are some of the dangers incurred when a 
boiler foams badlv? 



IN CASE OF BREAKDOWNS 507 

643. In case of a broken blow-off cock, or a hole 
broken in the boiler, what should be done? 

644. What may sometimes be done with a broken 
blow-off cock? 

645. If the water supply in the tender fails while 
away from a water tank, what should be done? 

646. If this should occur in the winter with snow on 
the ground, what may be done to obtain a supply of 
water? 

647. How may a dead engine be pumped up, and the 
boiler refilled by another engine? 

648. By what other method may a boiler that is 
dead, and partly empty, be refilled out on the road ? 

649. What is to be done in case an injector refuses 
to work? 

650. What are some of the things to be looked after, 
when an injector will not work? 

651. If an injector will not prime, what are some of 
the probable causes of it? 

652. If an injector primes readily, and then loses its 
priming, what are some of the various causes? 

653. If the boiler check valve sticks open, how may 
it sometimes be righted? 

654. What other causes maybe responsible for the 
check valve not working properly? 

655. What is to be done in case of a bursted flue? 

656. If no iron plug is at hand, what may be used to 
plug a bursted flue? 

657. What precaution should be observed in the 
driving of an iron plug into a bursted'flue? 

658. What should be done with a boiler having old 
and leaky flues? 

659. How should the blower be used on such a 
boiler? 



5o8 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

660. What effect does cold air have upon the flues, 
and flue sheet? 

661. What is one of the first things to do in case the 
lubricator refuses to work? 

662. How may it be cleaned out? 

663. What is usually the cause of a lubricator not 
feeding the oil properly? 

664. Is there any excuse for running a dry valve? 

665. What may be done towards forcing the oil to 
pass into the steam chest? 

666. Under what conditions is it difiicult to get the 
oil to feed regularly? 

667. What causes tend to bring about such conditions? 

668. What is to be done with a Vauclain compound, 
in case of a broken main valve rod? 

669. What may be done with a Vauclain compound 
when both high-pressure cylinder heads are gone? 

670. In case one high-pressure cylinder head on a 
Vauclain breaks, what should be done? 

671. If a high-pressure piston rod or piston head 
should break, what is to be done? 

672. What may be done with a Vauclain compound 
if one of the low-pressure cylinder heads is gone? 

O73. If a low-pressure piston head or piston rod 
breaks, what is the remedy? 

674. If the main rod on a Baldwin two-cylinder 
compound breaks, how may the engine be run? 

675. If the same break should occur on the low- 
pressure side, what should be done? 

6'j6. If a valve stem on either side of a Baldwin 
cross compound should break, what is the remedy? 

6']']. If either the intercepting or reducing valve on 
a Baldwin two-cylinder compound fails to work, what 
may be done? 



IN CASE OF BREAKDOWNS 509 

678. What is to be done with a Schenectady two 
cylinder compound in case of a broken main rod on 
the high-pressure side? 

679. In case a similar break occurs on the low- 
pressure side, what should be done? 

680. What is the remedy for a broken v^alve stem on 
either side of a Schenectady cross compound? 

681. In case the intercepting valve becomes dis- 
abled, how may a Schenectady two cylinder compound 
be operated? 

682. In case of a broken cylinder head on a Baldwin 
tandem compound, what is to be done? 

683. How are Baldwin tandems tested? 

684. Under what conditions is it allowable to oper- 
ate a compound locomotive as a single expansion 
engine? 



CHAPTER XI 
THE MODERN AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 

As an element of safety, and also of convenience, in 
the running of railway trains, the automatic air brake 
stands at the head of the long list of appliances that 
have come to be considered necessary in railroad prac- 
tice. The engineer is, or at least should be, particu- 
larly interested in this truly wonderful device, for 
the reason that he is responsible for its application 
at the proper time, and in the proper manner. It is 
fitting, therefore, that a space be devoted to a dis- 
cussion of the principles of the construction and action 
of the air brake, together with suggestions and advice 
regarding its care and operation. The author desires 
in this connection to acknowledge his indebtedness 
for the larger part of this matter to Mr. Frank H. 
Dukesmith, M. E., former superintendent of air brake 
construction for the International & Great Northern 
Railroad, and the Texas & Pacific Railway, also author 
of "Modern Air Brake Practice, Its Use and Abuse," 
a good book for engine men and train men. Both 
systems of air brake, viz., the Westinghouse and the 
New York air brake, will be described and illustrated, 
commencing with the Westinghouse. 

The Westinghouse Air Brake Equipment. The full 
and complete equipment of a modern Westinghouse 
quick-action automatic air brake is composed of twelve 
essential parts, as follows: 

510 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 511 

1. The steam-driven air pump which supplies the 
compressed air. 

2. The main reserv^oir in which the compressed air is 
stored. 

3. The engineer's brake valve by which is regulated 
the flow of air from the main reservoir into the train- 
pipe for charging and releasing the brakes, and from 
the trainpioe to the atmosphere for applying the 
brakes. 

4. The duplex air gauge, which shows simultaneously 
the pressure on the trainpipe (black hand), and in the 
main reservoir (red hand). 

5. The pump governor, which regulates the supply 
of steam to the pump, causing it to automatically stop 
when the desired maximum of pressure has been accu- 
mulated in the air brake apparatus. 

6. The trainpipe, which connects the engineer's 
brake valve and each triple valve in the train, and 
includes the air hose and hose couplings between cars. 

7. The quick-action triple valve, which is connected 
to the trainpipe, auxiliary reser\oir and brake cylinder 
and pressure-retaining valve. The triple valve oper- 
ates automatically whenever the pressure in the train- 
pipe is reduced lower than that in the auxiliary 
reservoir, and performs three functions: charges the 
auxiliary, applies the brakes and releases the brakes, 
as will be fully explained hereafter. 

8. The auxiliary reservoir, in which is stored the air 
pressure for applying the brake (on each car, engine, 
or tender, there is an individual auxiliary reservoir). 

9. The brake cylinder, in which there is a piston 
and piston rod, which is connected to the brake levers 
in such a manner that when the triple valve is moved 
to allow the auxiliary pressure to flow into the brake 



512 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

cylinder, the brake piston is thereby forced outward, 
which causes the brakes to apply. 

10. The pressure-retaining valve, which is connected 
to the triple exhaust by a small pipe. On freight cars 
the retaining valve is located on the end of the car 
near the top, just below the staff of the hand brake, 
and is for the purpose of enabling the brakeman to 
retain a pressure of fifteen pounds in the brake cylin- 
der while the engineer is recharging the auxiliary 
reservoir. While the handle of the retaining valve is 
turned up, the brake cannot be released from the 
engine, neither can it be "bled off" by the bleed cock 
of the auxiliary, for the reason that the cylinder must 
discharge its air through the triple exhaust, and when 
the retaining valve is closed it means that the triple 
exhaust is also closed. It is very important that 
brakemen thoroughly understand the operation of the 
pressure-retaining valve, as many accidents are due to 
ignorance or negligence in the working of this device. 

11. The automatic slack adjuster automatically 
maintains the travel of the brake-cylinder piston at a 
giv^en distance. For instance, if the piston travel is 
set for eight inches it will automatically keep it there. 
The slack adjuster is piped direct to the brake cylin- 
der, so that every time the brake is applied the adjuster 
is operated automatically. 

12. The airbrake release signal is for the purpose of 
signaling the engineer and train crew whenever a brake 
sets, releases or sticks, leaks off or has too much pis- 
ton travel, and locates defective triples and enables 
the trainmen to release the brake while the train is 
running, without having to get off the car. It is 
located on the top at the end of freight cars opposite 
the end on which is located the pressure-retaining valve 



'13 

ke 
ire 
ne 

of 
he 
:he 
ler 
th- 
:he 
ase 
3n, 
the 
ply 
tin, 
aw- 
ind 
the 
one 

is 
the 
the 
1 in 
the 

'ing 
per- 
iree 
at 
/iz. : 
inch 

onal 
eing 



AiaiLIARY BESERVOin 



AUXILIARY RESERVOIR 




izC^,_oi^ 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 513 

and, like the slack adjuster, is piped direct to the brake 
cylinder, so that whenever there is sufficient pressure 
in the brake cylinder to apply the brake, the same 
pressure causes the signal to appear above the top of 
the car in full view of the train crew, and when the 
pressure in the brake cylinder is exhausted through the 
triple valve, or leaks out around the packing leather 
in the brake cylinder, the signal is autotnatically with- 
drawn, showing that the brake is not set. Should the 
signal remain up and the triple valve fail to release 
the brake, as it should do when in perfect condition, 
the brakeman could from the top of a freight or the 
inside of a passenger car release the brake by simply 
pressing a valve, without having to stop the train, 
thereby avoiding slid-flat wheels, pulled-out draw- 
heads, stalling on grades, heating of wheels, and 
consequent wrecks. On flat cars and gondolas the 
signal is shown from the sides of the car, one 
on each end. On passenger trains the signal is 
located at the side of the door in both ends of the 
car, so that the signal can be seen at once by the 
conductor or brakeman, regardless of the direction in 
which they might be going when passing through the 
train. 

The Westinghouse Air Pump. The air pump, being 
located on the engine, and directly under the super- 
vision of the engineer, will be first considered. Three 
sizes of air pumps are being manufactured at 
present by the Westinghouse Air Brake Co., viz.: 
the 8-inch pump, the 9i-inch pump, and the ii-inch 
pump. . 

The 8-Inch Pump. The cut, Fig. 224, is a sectional 
view of the 8-inch pump, the different parts being 
numbered and named. 



514 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




» vry^A ^v»«wn<oA 



Figure 224 
Eight-Inch Pump. — See opposite page. 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 5^5 

Eight-Inch Pump on the Up-stroke 
54. Boiler connection. 

7. Main valve. 

7-8 and 7-9. Large and small piston of main valve. 
25 and 26. Main valve bushings. 
50. Stop pin. 
23. Reversing piston. 

16. Reversing valve. 

17. Reversing valve stem. 

18. Reversing plate. 

10 and II. Main steam and air pistons. 
3. Steam cylinder. 4. Neck. 5. Air cylinder. 
57. Main steam exhaust. 
41. Drain cock. 

30 and 32. Discharge valves. 

31 and 33. Receiving valves. 
53. Main reservoir connection. 

The 8-inch pump is so called on account of the bore 
of the cylinders being eight inches. It has two cylin- 
ders; -the one on top, 3, is the steam cylinder, and the 
one below, 5, is the air cylinder. They are joined 
together by a neck, 4, and in the top of the air cylin- 
der and bottom of the steam cylinder there are stuffing 
boxes, 56, through which passes a piston rod, on each 
end of which there are piston heads, 12 and 13. The 
piston rod, 10, is hollow for a sufficient depth to admit 
the stem, 17, of the reversing valve, 16. The reversing 
plate, 18, is bolted on top of steam piston, 10, sp that 
it strikes the button on the stem, 17, as the piston 
approaches the end of its down-stroke, and strikes the 
shoulder of the stem, 17, as it makes the up-stroke, for 
the purpose of changing the position of the reversing 
valve, 16, which reverses the stroke of the pump. 

The valves through which the air is received and 



Si6 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

discharged are all in the lower, or air end of the 
pump. 

The action of the steam end of the pump is as fol- 
lows: Steam from the boiler enters the pump at the 
union swivel, 54, and besides filling the chamber which 
contains the main valve, 7, passes through a port in the 
wall of this chamber and through a passage (not shown 
in Fig. 224) to the chamber in which the reversing 
valve works, thereby constituting the main valve cham- 
ber and the reversing valve chamber as the two steam 
chests of the pump. 

From the reversing valve chamber the steam passes 
through a small port into the space occupied by the 
reversing piston, 23, as shown in Fig. 224, and as the 
combined area of piston, 23, and small piston, 9, is 
greater than the area of the large piston, 8, the main 
valve, 7, is forced down until the small piston strikes 
the stop pin, 50, and thus uncovers the port in bushing, 
26, which admits steam to the underside of main pis- 
ton, 10, forcing it up. 

As the main piston moves up. Fig. 224, it strikes the 
shoulder of stem 17, and thus changes the position of 
the reversing valve, so that the top port in its cham- 
ber is closed to piston 23, and the two lower ports are 
connected by the cavity in the reversing valve, which 
allows the steam to flow from off the top of piston 23, 
and pass under it into the exhaust passage across the 
head, as shown by dotted lines, to the main exhaust. 
When the pressure is thus shut off from piston 23, the 
main valve rises and causes the small piston to close 
the steam port to the under side of the main piston, 
and opens the exhaust port leading into the passage in 
the bottom of the cylinder, shown by dotted lines, and 
out at the main exhaust; at the same time piston 8 of 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 517 

the main valve closes the top exhaust port in bushing 

25, and opens the supply port through the bushing, 
and thus admits steam on top of the main piston, which 
drives it down. 

In making the down-stroke, Fig. 224, Plate 18 
engages the button on stem 17, and again changes the 
position of the reversing valve, which again admits 
steam on top of the reversing piston, which causes the 
main valve to move down as before, and piston 8 un- 
covers a port in the bushing 25, which exhausts the 
steam from off the top of the main piston, and at the 
same time piston 9 opens the supply port in bushing 

26, which admits steam to the under side of the main 
piston, and at the same time closes the lower exhaust. 
Ihe pump has now made a complete double stroke. 

Drain cock 41 must always be opened before the 
pump is started, and left open until the pump is 
warmed up, or until there is about thirty pounds pres- 
sure in the main reservoir, and great care must be 
taken to start the pump slow, to avoid pounding and 
jarring, as the condensation cannot be compressed, 
and there must be an air cushion for the piston head 
to strike against in the lower cylinder 

The action of the air end of the pump is as follows: 
Tnere are four air valves; two are called receiving 
valves, 31 and 33, and two are called discharge valves, 
3c and 32. There are two valve cages, 34 and 43, and 
as the discharge valves have a greater area than the 
receiving valves, in the 8-inch pump, the flow of air 
past the valves is determined by the lift each valve 
has; the receiving valves have a lift of ;|-inch, while 
tht discharge valves have a lift of -j^-inch, or -jV less 
than the receiving valves. 

These standards must never be chang^ed, as too much 



5iS LOCO^sIOTIVE EN'GIXEERIXG 

lift of any of the valves will cause the pump to pouna, 
and not enough lift will cause it to run hot. 

The wa\- in which the pump receives and discharges 
air is as follows: When piston ii is drawn up by 
steam piston lo, there is a partial vacuum formed in 
the air c\'linder beneath piston ii, and as the atmos- 
pheric pressure is about fifteen pounds to the square 
inch, the receiving valve 33 is forced off its seat by 
the air rushing in to fill up the space created by the 
partial vacuum, and if the piston was to stop when it 
reached the top, the valve would be seated by its own 
weight when the pressure inside and out of the cylinder 
equalized; but as the piston reverses just as it reaches 
the top, the val\-e is forced to its seat and held there 
by the compression of the air on top of it, and if the 
\abe has too much lift the pound heard when the 
\alve is seated is great in proportion. 

When the piston starts on the down-stroke it com- 
presses the air higher and higher as it nears the bot- 
tom, and when the pressure in the pump becomes 
greater than that in the main reservoir, the lower dis- 
charge valve, 32, is forced up and the air from the 
pump rushes into the main reservoir, until the \-alve i.^ 
seated b\' the main reservoir pressure becoming greater 
than that in the pump. 

The action of the top recei\'ing and discharge valves 
is the same as the lower ones, except on the opposite 
stroke. 

The 9.V-Iiich Air Pump. The cut, Fig. 225, is a sec 
tional elevation of the g^-inch pump, and for pur- 
poses of explanation is subdi\ided into Sections i, :: 
and 3. 

The 94-inch pump differs from the 8'-inch pump if 
several ways. In the first place it is larger by 14- 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



519 




Figure 225 
Nine and One-half Inch Pitmt> — gee pa^e 520. 



520 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

inches in the bo^; second, the valve motion of the 
steam end is all contained in the top head, except the 
reversing valve stem, which is the same as in the 
8-inch pump; third, the air valves are all the same 
size, and all have the same lift of ^\-inch, and the 
valves are placed so that the discharge valves are both 
on one side, and the receiving valves on the opposite 
side of the air cylinder; fourth, there is but one air 
inlet for the receiving valves, making it possible to 
strain all the air through one strainer, as indicated by 
io6. Sec. I. The main piston is the same in construc- 
tion as in the 8-inch pump; there are two heads, 67, on 
one piston rod, 65, and this rod is hollow to admit the 
stem, 71, of the reversing valve, 'J2, and the reversing 
valve stem is driven up or pulled down by the revers- 
ing plate, 69, striking the shoulder,/, or the button, 
70, just as it does in the 8-inch pump. 

As the reversing valve was the channel through 
which the steam had to pass to and from the top of the 
reversing piston in the 8-inch pump, in like manner 
the reversing valve in the 94-inch pump controls the 
flow of steam to and from the plain side of piston 'JJ 
of the main valve, which in connection with the slide 
valve, 83, controls the supply and exhaust ports in the 
steam cylinder. ^ 

Nine and One-half Inch Pump 

94. Boiler connection, showing by dotted lines how 

steam passes to main valve chamber A. Main steam 
exhaust is indicated by dotted lines and figures 61-92. 

77. Large piston of main valve. 

79. Small piston of main valve. 

83 Slide valve. 

105. Drain cock. 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 521 

71. Reversing valve stem. 
69. Reversing plate. 

97. Stuffing boxes. 

98. Oil cup. 

65 and (ij. Main steam and air pistons. 
io6. Air inlet. 
86. Air valvus. 
92. To main reservoir. 
75. Sec. 3. Main valve bushing. 

72. Sec. 2. Reversing valve. 

To explain this it is necessary to use two sectional 
views of the pump, as shown in Fig. 225. In Sec. i 
the pipe connection, 93, shows by dotted lines how the 
steam from the boiler is carried through a passage in 
the back of the pump to the main-valve chamber. 

The main valve is composed of two pistons of un- 
equal diameters, fastened to a suitable rod, 76, and on 
this rod there are two shoulders between which a com- 
mon D slide valve, 83, is held. Sec. 3 represents the 
bushing in which the main valve and slide valve works. 

The slide-valve seat has three openings; the one on 
the left, in Sec. i, leads to and from the under side of 
the main piston; the one on the right leads to and 
from the top side of the main piston, and the one in 
the middle leads to the main exhaust, 92. Conse- 
quently when steam enters the main-valve chamber the 
piston "jj^ having the largest area, is forced to the 
extreme right, as in Sec. i, against the head 84, which 
causes the slide valve to uncover a port in the seat so 
that the steam can pass from the main-valve chamber 
down through a passage in the side of the cylinder to 
the under side of the main piston, which forces it up, 
and the reversing plate strikes the shoulder,/, on the 
reversing-valve stem, which drives the reversing valve 



522 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

up and allows the steam in the reversing-valve cham- 
ber to pass through the lower horizontal port in the main- 
valve bushing (see Sec. 3) into the chamber between 
the head 84, and piston ']']. As this balances the 
pressure on both sides of the large piston, 'jj, the 
small piston 79 now pulls the slide valve to the oppo- 
site end of the chamber, which uncovers the supply- 
port to the top of the main piston and allows the steam 
to force it down, and at the same time the steam from 
the under side is being exhausted by way of the cavity 
in the slide valve, which now has the lower supply 
port and the main exhaust connected. 

The reason the small piston pulls the large piston 
over, after the pressure is balanced on both sides of 
piston 77, is because there is a small port between the 
plain side of piston 79 and the head 85, which is 
always open to the main exhaust, so that no back 
pressure can remain in the chamber indicated by Z2, 
and no partial vacuum can be formed on that side of 
the small piston. 

The main-valve chamber is always in communication 
with the reversing-valve chamber by a small port in 
the bushing, 75, as shown in Sec. 2; cap nut 74 has a 
small port in it which allows live steam to always 
reach the top of the reversing-valve stem, for the pur- 
pose of keeping the pressure balanced on both ends of 
it. 

As the main piston is now making its down-stroke 
the reversing plate, 69, engages the button on the end 
of the reversing-valve stem and draws the reversing 
valve down to the position shown in Sec. 2, which con- 
nects the second horizontal port in the bushing with 
the port which in Sec. 3 appears to be vertical and 
having a short extension to the right, and as this port 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 523 

is always open to the main exhaust, the steam between 
piston "JJ and the head 84 is exhausted, which allows 
the steam in the main-valve chamber to again force 
piston ']'] to the position shown in Sec. i, which places 
the slide valve in position to allow the steam to exhaust 
from the top of the main piston, and at the same time 
connects the main-valve chamber with the under side of 
the main piston, causing it to be forced up, as before. 

Like the 8-inch pump, the stuffing boxes, 95, must 
be kept well packed, and the gland nuts, 96, just tight 
enough to stop leaks, but not tight enough to cause 
groaning. With metallic packing the nuts can be 
tightened more than they could if a fiber packing is 
used, for if you screw down too tight on a fiber pack- 
ing it will ruin it. 

The drain cock, 105, must be handled in the same 
way as the one on the 8inch pump, but in addition to 
this one there is one in the main exhaust (not shown in 
Sec. i), and it also must be opened when starting the 
pump. 

The 11-Inch Pump. The Westinghouse Air Brake 
Company are now making an ii-inch pump after the 
same pattern as the 9^-inch one. 

At the 9|^-inch pump can compress about a third 
more air in a given time than the 8-inch pump, in like 
manner the ii-inch pump can compress a third more 
air than the 9^-inch pump can within the same length 
of time. 

Right and left hand pumps are pumps having two 
sets of plugs on either side of the steam cylinder, so 
that the pump can be located on either side of the 
engine as desired. All 9-J-inch and ii-inch pumps 
are now made right and 'eft. 

To change a i;^unip from right to left, or vice versa, 



524 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

remove the steam port fittings and opposite plug and 
exchange them, remove the exhaust port fitting and 
its opposite plug and exchange them. 

Lubrication of Air Pumps. In oiling either the 8, gi 
or ii-inch pump the steam end is oiled by a lubri- 
cator, and when first starting the pump, the oil should 
be allowed to flow at the rate of about fifteen drops a 
minute, but as soon as the pump is nicely warmed up, 
or say about thirty pounds pressure in the main res- 
ervoir, then the oil should be cut down to about one 
drop a minute, if that will keep the pump lubricated 
so that it won't groan. Some pumps require more oil 
than others, according to the work they have to do. 
Too much oil in either end of the pump is ruinous. 

The air cylinder should be oiled regularly with good 
valve oil, as the old practice of oiling it only when the 
pump groans is now found to be bad practice. A good 
fat swab should always be kept on the piston-rod, and 
kept well oiled, which will help keep the air cylinder 
lubricated. 

Under no circumstances must oil be sucked in 
through the air inlet, as it will surely ruin the pump. 
Whenever the air cylinder is to be oiled, the pump 
should be throttled down to a very slow speed, and 
after first filling the oil cup^ watch the stroke of the 
piston, and, while it is going down, quickly open the 
oil cup and allow the oi^ to be sucked in before the 
piston starts up. This causes the oil to be sprayed 
around the cylinder. If oil was poured in while the 
pump was cold, just as soon as it was started up the 
oil would be forced into the main reservoir, and 
eventually find its way to the brake valve, and gum up 
the rotary, feed valve and pump governor. 

Some engineers say they can't oil a pump on the 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 525 

down-stroke for the reason that the oil blows back in 
their face; this is true only when the piston packing 
rings are leaky, and if the oil does blow back on the 
down-stroke, it tells you very plainly that new packing 
rings are needed, and needed badly, as one of the most 
common causes for the pump running hot is leaky 
packing rings. A leaky discharge valve might cause 
a back blow, but if the pump is completely stopped 
and you hold your finger slightly above the open oil 
cup you can tell if the trouble is there. 

There is now being supplied, when so specified, an 
automatic oil cup for the air end of the pump, on both 
the Westinghouse and the New York air pumps. 

Never use anything but good valve oil for either end 
of the pump, as the heat generated by the compression 
of air is so great that it requires oil of a high flashing 
point to withstand it. On a warm summer's day the air 
in a pump working against a ninety-pound pressure in 
the main reservoir is about 550 degrees, and on a cold 
winter's day, when the thermometer is thirty degrees 
below freezing, the pump generates a heat of 300 
degrees against a ninety-pound main-reservoir pressure. 
And if you run your pump faster than sixty or seventy 
full strokes a minute, or have leaky packing rings or 
leaky discharge valves, the heat is raised considerably 
higher. 

The air valves in the g^^-inch pump operate the 
same as in the 8-inch. But the lift of the air valves in 
the 9i-inch pump are all the same, whereas they differ 
in the 8-inch pump, as previously explained. 

The Pump Governor. When an engine is equipped 
with a brake valve on which there is a feed valve 
attachment, the pump governor controls the main- 
reservoir pressure. 



526 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



But when the D-8 brake valve is used, the governor 
controls the .train-pipe pressure. 




C<»nectioD 36 on 
Engineer's Bnke 
VaWe. ^ 




Figure 226 
Pump Governor 



While the new style governor is very similar to the 
old style, the new one is much more reliable, as it is 
more positive in its action. 

The governor is located on the steam pipe leading 
to the pump, as its purpose is to shut off the steam 
whenever the pump has compressed the required 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



527 



amount of air; and whenever the air pressure falls 
below standard, the governor automatically reopens 
the valve in the steam pipe and keeps it open until the 
air pressure is agam restored, when it again shuts off 
the steam. 

This Action is very simple. As the steam enters the 
governor at x^ it passes under the steam valve, 51, and 
through Y into the pump, and as long as the steam 
valve is unseated the pump will continue to work and 
compress air right up to boiler pressure; but as ninety 
pounds is all that is wanted in the main reservoir with 
the regular quick-action equipment, the tension spring 
of the governor must be set so that the steam valve 
will seat when ninety pounds is reached. 

This is done as follows: It will be noticed that 
piston 53 rests on the stem of the steam valve, and 
that the area of piston 53 is several times greater 
than the area of the steam valve, which means 
that if the relative areas were as three is to one, 
that when a fraction over fifty pounds of air got on top 
of piston 53 it would drive the steam valve to its seat 
against a steam pressure of 150 pounds. 

The manner in which the air is admitted to the top of 
piston 53 to stop the pump, or kept from it to allow 
the pump to run, is as follows: A small pipe leading 
from the main-reservoir return pipe is connected to 
the governor at W, which allows main-reservoir pies- 
sure to always fill the chamber under diaphragm ^'j, 
and as this diaphragm is held down by a tension spring 
66, and as there is a small pin valve attached to the 
center of the diaphragm which closes the port lead- 
ing to the top of piston 53, whenever the air pressure 
becomes greater under the diaphragm than the tension 
of the spring, it will cause it to raise and unseat the 



528 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

pin valve, and allow the air to reach the top 
of piston 53, causing it to seat the steam valve 
and stop the pump. If the tension spring 66 is 
properly set the pump will stop when there is 90 
pounds in the main-reservoir. Whenever the main- 
reservoir pressure gets lower than the tensioft of the 
spring, the diaphragm valve drops back to its seat and 
the air escapes frow the top of piston 53 through a 
small vent port 52, which allows spring 56 to aid the 
steam in lifting the steam valve from its seat. 

If the vent port 62 is not kept open the pump will be 
slow in starting, for the air could only get off the top 
of piston 53 by passing down around packing ring 
54 and out at the waste-pipe connection {g); stud 60 is 
tapped in the back of the governor under piston 53, 
to carry off any steam that might leak by the stem of 
valve 51, or any air that might leak around packing 
ring 54, consequently should both the vent port and 
the waste pipe become clogged the governor would 
not shut off the pump, and the main-reservoir pres- 
sure would run up to boiler pressure. 



Engineer's Brake Valve 

In applying the brakes with the quick-action triple, 
it is not only necessary to reduce the train-pipe pres- 
sure lower than that in the auxiliary, but it is abso- 
lutely necessary that the reduction be madG gradtia/fy 
to prevent the emergency action. 

The old-style brake valve, or three-way cock, had 
only three positions, viz: application, lap and release, 
and while some men seem to think the new brake 
valve has only two positions, "on'' and "off," there 
are, however, five positions, as follows: full release. 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 529 

ler- 



Js 




x^ 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



529 



running position, lap, service application, and emer- 
gency. 




. Figure 227 
D-8 Brake Valve and Rotary Seat 
There are two kinds of brake valves, one has no feed, 
valve attachmen and is known as the D-8 and depends 



530 ' LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

upon the pump governor to regulate the trainpipe 
pressure. The other kind has a feed-valve attachment 
for controlling the trainpipe pressure, which leaves the 
pump governor to control the main-reservoir pressure, 
and is known as the F-6 and G-6 brake valve, accord- 
ing to the kind of feed valve there is on it. The F-6 
has the old style feed valve, and the G-6 has the new 
slide valve feed valve, as shown in Figs. 231 and 232. 

As the D-8 brake valve is now largely superseded 
by the F-6 and G-6 it will not be necessary to enter 
into details in describing it, except to point out the 
differences between the two types of brake valves. 

The D-8 brake valve uses the pump governor to 
control the trainpipe pressure of seventy pounds, and 
the connection is made at V, Fig. 227, the "excess" is 
controlled by what is known as the excess pressure 
valve (19, Sec. 3, of Fig. 227). 

The D-8 Engineer's Brake Valve 

When the handle of the D-8 brake valve is in full re- 
lease position the pump will shut off at seventy pounds 
and the pressure in the main-reservoir and trainpipe 
would be the same, but if the handle is in running 
position the excess pressure valve will not open to 
admit air into the trainpipe until there is twenty 
pounds in the main reservoir, and as it requires twenty 
pounds to hold this valve open, the trainpipe will get 
a pressure of seventy pounds before the pump will shut 
off, thus leaving an excess pressure of twenty pounds 
in the main reservoir. 

If the handle is placed on lap while the trainpipe 
pressure is below seventy pounds, the pump will run 
the main reservoir pressure up to boiler pressure, for 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



53 



the governor cannot shut the pump off unless there 
is seventy pounds in the trainpipe; on the other hand, 
if the handle is in running position no air can get into 
the trainpipe until there is twenty pounds of excess in 
the main reservoir, 
and as a consequence 
the many leaks that 
commonly occur in 
the main reservoir 
and trainpipe con- 
nections cause the 
brakes to creep on 
before the pressure 
can be restored to 
keep them off. It is 
mainly on this ac- 
count that the F-6 
brake valve was in- 
vented, for with this 
valve the pump gov^- 
ernor is controlled by 
the main reservoir 
pressure, and will 
stop the pump at 
ninety pounds in the 
main reservoir, no 
matter in what posi- 
tion the handle is, 
and, as the trainpipe 
pressure is controlled 
by the feed valve, 
whenever that pres- 
sure falls below the 
standard of seventy pounds, if the handle is in running 




Sec. 4 

Figure 228 

D-8 Brake Valve and Rotary 



532 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

position the feed valve will open and let the main 
reservoir pressure in, and thus keep the brakes from 
dragging. 

Another difference between the two kinds of brake 
valves is that with the D-8 valve, when making a serv- 
ice application, the air from cavity D over the 
equalizing discharge valve (17) is exhausted to the 
atmosphere through a separate little port in the cas- 
ing, marked h in Sec. 2 of Fig. 228, whereas the pre- 
liminary exhaust h, in the F-6 valve, is connected 
with the main or emergency exhaust, marked k in Sec. 
2 of Fig. 230, thus making one port less through the 
casing of the F-6 brake valve. 

Therefore there are the following differences be- 
tween the D-8 and the F-6 brake valves: 1st, with the 
D-8 valve the excess pressure is gotten before the train- 
pipe begins to charge, if the handle is in running posi- 
tion; 2nd, with the D-8 valve the trainpipe pressure 
is controlled by the pump governor, instead of the 
feed valve attachment, as it is with the F-6; 3rd, with 
the D-8 valve, if the handle is left in either lap, serv- 
ice or emergency position, the pump will run the 
main reservoir pressure up to boiler pressure, or will 
shut off when there is only seventy pounds in the 
main reservoir if the handle is left in full release from 
the starting of the pump, whereas with the F-6 valve, 
the pump will be shut off by the governor, if properly 
set, when the main reservoir reaches ninety pounds, 
no matter what position the handle of the valve is in; 
4th, with the F-6 valve the excess pressure is gotten 
after the trainpipe pressure is pumped up; 5th, with 
the D-8 valve, if the excess pressure valve should 
happen to be in bad order, and it usually is, if the 
handle was left on lap for any considerable length 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 533 

of time after making a service application, the main 
reservoir pressure would be raised so high that, with a 
short train, when the handle was thrown to release 
position the auxiliaries would be overcharged, and the 
wheels slid on the next application, unless the en- 
gineer was very careful, whereas with the F-6 valve the 
most that could get in the auxiliaries, if the governor 
was correct, would be ninety pounds; 6th, when an 
emergency application is made with the D-8 valve, the 
black hand on the gauge will rise instead of fall, be- 
cause in this position the equalizing port to cavity D 
is open to the main reservoir pressure. The construc- 
tion of the D-8 valve, with these differences, is the 
same as the F-6 or G-6, except that the D-8 has an ex- 
cess pressure valve while the F-6 or G-6 has a feed 
valve attachment, which will be explained in regular 
order. 



The F 6 (1892 Model) Engineer's Brake Valve 

The engineer's brake valve is the device on the en- 
gine by means of which the engineer is enabled to 
charge up, and keep charged, the trainpipe and auxil- 
iaries; apply the brakes, and keep them applied, re- 
lease the brakes and keep them released, and to do 
these several things he has either to place the main 
reservoir in communication with the trainpipe, or open 
the trainpipe to the atmosphere, or shut off all com- 
munication, as the case may be, according to whether 
he is applying or releasing the brakes, keeping them 
set, or running along. 

There are just four things that constitute the essen- 
tial parts to a modern brake valve, and thev are: the 
rotary valve, the handle that controls the rotary, the 



534 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




American JIfaehinttt 



Sec. 3 
Figure 229 
''-6 Brake Valve and Old Style Feed Valve 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 535 

equalizing discharge valve, and the feed valve attach- 
ment, or trainpipe governor. Of course there are gas- 
kets, springs, packing rings, the equalizing reservoir, 
etc., but they are matters of detail. 

There are five positions in which the handle of the 
brake valve can be placed. 

The first, or extreme left position is "full release," 
and is the position the handle should always be in 
when releasing brakes, or when it becomes necessary 
to charge up quickly, for in this position the air from 
the main reservoir flows through the largest ports in 
the rotary, direct to the tra^inpipe. 

The second position is called "running position," 
because the handle should be carried in this position 
while running along, for the reason that in this posi- 
tion the rotary valve is placed so that all the air that 
passes from the main reservoir into the trainpipe must 
go through the feed valve attachment, and this at- 
tachment will only allow seventy pounds of air to get 
into the trainpipe (if set correctly, and unless the 
high-speed apparatus is being used), it enables the 
pump to maintain an excess pressure in the main 
reserv^oir, for if the pump governor is set at ninety 
pounds, and the feed valve set at seventy, there will 
naturally be twenty pounds greater pressure in the 
main reservoir than in the trainpipe before the pump 
is stopped by the governor. 

Another reason why the handle must always be car- 
ried in running position while the train is running 
along, is because whenever the pressure in the 
trainpipe leaks down below the standard of seventy 
pounds, the feed valve will open automatically and 
allow the main reservoir pressure to again flow into 
the trainpipe until that pressure is restored, when it 



536 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

will automatically close itself, and allow the pump to 
again create the "excess" in the main reservoir. 

The third position on the brake valve is "lap," and 
when the handle is in this position all ports are 
closed, so that no air can pass either into the trainpipe 
or out of it. After applying the brakes, the handle 
should be brought to lap carefully, and held there 
until it is desired to further reduce the trainpipe pres- 
sure or release the brakes, as the case may be, and 
when releasing the brakes the handle must be placed 
on full release position for a few seconds, according 
to the length of train and the amount of excess carried 
before it is allowed to rest on running position. 

The fourth position is called "service application 
position," because in this position the air is allowed to 
escape gradually from the trainpipe. In this position 
the air on top of the equalizing discharge valve is 
allowed to escape through the small preliminary exhaust 
port in the seat of the rotary so gradually that a sudden 
reduction on the trainpipe is prevented, for as the pres- 
sure on top of the discharge valve is allowed to escape, 
the trainpipe pressure below gradually forces it from its 
seat and thereby opens the trainpipe exhaust. If the 
handle is left in service position until ten pounds is 
drawn from the top of the discharge valve and then 
placed on the lap, the valve will not seat until a frac- 
tion over ten pounds has escaped from the trainpipe, 
when the pressure on top will then be the greatest and 
force the discharge valve back to its seat, and thereby 
close the trainpipe exhaust. 

The fifth position is called "emergency application 
position," because when the handle is in this position 
the rotary con-nects the main trainpipe supply port 
with the main exhaust port and the air is allowed to 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 537 

escape from the trainpipe, direct to the atmosphere, 
regardless of the equalizing discharge valve, and this 
sudden reduction of trainpipe pressure allows the 
triples to be forced to their full stroke, and thus 
causes the quick action, or emergency application. 
Emergency position should never be used except in 
case of danger. Owing to the rough manner in which 
some enginemen handle their brakes, this position 
is often called "criminal application position." 

The parts of the F-6 brake valve are as follows: the 
handle, which controls the rotary, is marked 8, in Sec. 
i; the lug (9) is forced out by a spring (10) so that the 
handle may be stopped in any desired position, and 
when placing the handle in any of the positions be 
sure that the lug in the handle is right up against the 
lug on the brake valve, for the reason that the rotary 
valve is moved in exact accord with the handle. 
If either lug is worn the movement of the rotary will 
be correspondingly changed when the lugs are against 
each other; 12 is the stem to one end of which the 
handle is fastened by nuts 6 and 7, and the other is 
dove-tailed or keyed into the top of the rotary, so that 
whatever way the handle is turned the rotary has to 
turn with it; 13 is a small leather gasket for the 
purpose of preventing any air from leaking out 
around the stem, as main reservoir pressure is always 
on top of the rotary and under the shoulder of stem 
12, forcing it up against the casing. This gasket 
sometimes gets gummed up so badly that it causes 
the handle to move very hard; 14 is the rotary valve, 
and 3 is the rotary valve scat; 18 is the equalizing dis- 
charge valve, which controls the trainpipe exhaust 7n 
and n. The action of the discharge valve has already 
been explained under "service application position.** 



538 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

As cavity D above the discharge valve is very small, 
it is necessary to have a greater volume of air to con- 
trol it than the cavity alone will contain, and this 
greater volume is supplied by a little drum, or equal- 
izing reservoir, which holds about 500 cubic inches of 
air, and is located, usually, under the footboard of the 
cab. It is connected to the brake valve at T (Sec. i), 
and from T to cavity D there is a connecting passage, 
as shown by s in Sees. 2 and 3, and as the little drum 
is always charged equally with cavity D, whenever the 
pressure in cavity D is reduced it is also reduced in 
the little drum. This greater volume is needed above 
the discharge valve to compensate for the volume in 
the trainpipe. 

When the handle of the brake valve is placed in serv- 
ice position the rotary shuts off the main reservoir 
and also cavity D from the trainpipe, and allows the 
air to escape from cavity D by way of port e, groove/ 
and preliminary exhaust port k to the atmosphere 
through the main exhaust /&, and when the handle is 
moved to lap it closes the preliminary exhaust, and 
thus holds the little drum pressure at whatever it was 
reduced to, as shown by the black hand of the gauge, 
and when the trainpipe has exhausted until it becomes 
less than the pressure in cavity D the discharge valve 
is forced to its seat by the pressure in the little 
drum, and stops any further flow of air from the 
trainpipe. 

Nos. 34 to 46 in Sec. 3 of Fig. 229, all refer to the 
old style feed valve attachment as used on the F-6 
brake valve. The essential parts are the supply valve 
34, valve spring 35, diaphragm piston 37, regu- 
lating spring 39, regulating nut 41. 

When the rotary is in running position the operation 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



539 



fHim 



ot ttie feed valve is as follows: The regulating spring 
being set at seventy pounds tension, it forces the 
piston up against the stem of the supply valve and raises 
it off its seat, 
causing the 
main reservoir 
pressure to flow 
from the top 
of the rotary 
down through 
port/ in the 
rotary (Sec. 4, 
Fig. 230), and 
through port / 
in the rotary 
seat(Sec. 3, Fig. 
229), through a 
passage (/), and 
under the sup- 
ply valve to the 
top of the dia- 
phragm piston, 
then through a 
port (shown by 
dotted lines, 
and marked i, 
Sec. 2, Fig. 
230), which 
leads off the top 
of the piston into the trainpipe by way of the main 
supply port as shown by dotted lines in Sec. 2. As 
the rotary is now in position so that the large cavity 
{c) as shown in Sec. 4, Fig. 230, connects the main 
supply port with the equalizing port ^ (which passes 





Figure 230 
F-6 Brake Valve — Rotary and Seat 



540 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

through the rotary seat into cavity D), the air that is 
passing from the top of the rotary through the feed 
valve into the trainpipe, is also filling cavity D, and 
the little drum, by way of ports ^ and s, as shown in 
Sec. 3, Fig. 229. While Fig. 229 shows full release 
position, still ports s and g- are fully shown, and if the 
handle is moved to running position the port through 
the rotary that registers with port e in Sec. 3, would be 
in register with port/; port^ is indicated by dotted 
lines. 

In running position, when the trainpipe and little 
drum are charged up to seventy pounds there is also 
seventy pounds on top of the diaphragm piston, and 
as the regulating spring is set at a fraction less than 
seventy, the air pressure forces it down and allows the 
supply valve to seat and shut off the main reser\'oir 
from the trainpipe. But as soon as the pressure in the 
trainpipe falls below seventy, the piston is again forced 
up by the regulating spring and keeps the supply valve 
open until the pressure is again restored in the train- 
pipe. 

The feed valve attachment is in operation only when 
the handle of the brake valve is in running position. 

The course of the air through the brake valve in full 
release position is as follows: The return pipe from 
the main reservoir is connected to the brake valve at 
X, and passes directly to the top of the rotary through 
the passage A, then through port a in the rotary into 
cavity d in the rotary seat and under a bridge in the 
rotary (which now stands midway over cavity ^), and 
on over the seat of the rotary, through large cavity c, 
direct into the main supply port (i) to the trainpipe. 
In passing over the rotary seat the air also passes 
down through the equalizing port j--, into cavity D, 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 541 

and from cavity D through port s into the little drum; 
and as the feed valve is cut out when the handle is 
in full release, both the little drum and trainpipe 
pressure would charge up to main reservoir pressure 
if the rotary was left in full release. In full release 
position, port J in the rotary registers with port e in 
the seat, so that cavity D charges faster in full release 
than in running position. 

Always remember that the little drum is simply an 
enlargement of cavity D, and the same pressure is in 
both. 

The War?ii7tg Port^ through which the air is heard 
escaping as long as the handle remains in full release, 
is a small port through the rotary about the size of a 
pin, which allows the main reservoir air to whistle 
through it to warn the engineer that he is liable to 
overcharge his trainpipe. It should always be kept 
clean. 

The black hand of the gauge is piped to the little 
drum at W (Sec. i. Fig. 229), as stud 17 is tapped into 
pipe 15 which connects the little drum with cavity D 
by way of port s. 

The red hand of the gauge and also the pump gover- 
nor are piped to the main reservoir pressure at R. 

To make an emergency application the handle 
must be moved to the extreme right, when the large 
cavity {c) in the rotary will connect the main supply 
port (/) of the trainpipe with the main exhaust port 
{k), and allow the air in the trainpipe to exhaust 
directly into the atmosphere, 

BRAKE VALVE AND NEW SLIDE VALVE FEED VALVE 

The G-6 brake valve is identical with the F-6, with 



542 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



the exception of the feed valve. In the new slide 
valve feed valve the only material change is that a 
slide valve controls the flow of air from the main 
reservoir into the trainpipe, which allows the pressure 




Figure 231 
G-6 Brake Valve 



to be raised much quicker than it can be with the 
old style feed valve. 

The working parts of the new slide valve feed valve 
are as follows: all of the essential parts of the old 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



543 



style feed valve are retained, see Fig. 232, with slight 
modification, for 64 is the diaphragm piston, which, 
instead of having a rubber diaphragm has two sheet- 
brass diaphragms (57) on the piston head, supported 
by a ring (63); 67 is the regulating spring; 65 the 
regulating nut; 59 a small valve corresponding exactly 
wath supply valve 34 in the old style feed valve and 60 
is the spring which controls valve 59, 

By reference to Fig. 231, Sec. 3, it will be seen 
that there is a slide valve (55) attached to a piston (54), 
and this piston is forced for- 
ward by a spring (58). 

The action of the new 
slide valve feed valve is as 
follows: When the handle of 
the rotary is in running 
position, main reservoir 
pressure drives the slide 
valve and piston back, 
which uncovers a port in 
the slide valve seat that 
connects with feed port i, 
and as the slide valve does 
not move until the train- 
pipe is fully charged, it causes the pressure to be 
restored very quickly after it has been reduced from 
any cause. 

The reason the slide valve does not move until the 
pressure is restored is because the piston has no pack- 
ing rings, and the air is allowed to circulate by it 
through a small passage that leads to the supply valve 
chamber, from which it passes under the cut-off valve 
across the diaphragm into feed port i, and when there 
is a pressure of seventy pounds on the diaphragm it 




63 62 65 

Figure 232 
Slide Valve Feed Valve 



544 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

moves away from the supply valve and allows it to 
seat, when the circulation by the piston is stopped, 
causing the pressure to equalize on both sides of the 
slide valve piston, when spring 58 moves the slide 
valve and closes communication between the main 
reservoir and the trainpipe. Whenever trainpipe 
pressure falls below seventy the diaphragm forces 
valve 59 off its seat and the same action is repeated 
as before. 

The Triple Valve. Having studied the construction 
and operation of the air pump at some length it is 
now in order to devote a space to the method of 
utilizing the compressed air in the setting of brakes 
on the train, according to the Westinghouse system. 
Next to the air pumplhe triple valve is one of the most 
important factors in the automatic air brake equipment 
and engineers and firemen should thoroughly master 
the details of its construction and action. 

Naturally the first question arises: "Why must there 
be a triple valve?" 

It is because the brake charges, sets and releases 
automatically, and as this requires three distinct serv- 
ices, it follows that a device capable of doing a 
triple service must be had, and as these three things 
are done by one part of the equipment it is called the 
triple valve (meaning three valves in one, or a valve 
that charges the auxiliary reservoir, a valve that sets 
the brakes and a valve that releases the brakes). 

In order to clearly understand the duties and action 
of the triple valve remember that on each car there 
must be a trainpipe, an auxiliary reservoir, a brake cyl- 
inder and the triple valve. There are several kinds of 
triple valves in use, but the same principle governs 
their action. The operation of the "plain" triple 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 545 

valve in making a full service application of the 
brakes, releasing the brakes, and recharging the 
auxiliary reservoir will be first described and illus- 
trated. It should be remembered that in order to 
set the brakes, the pressure in the trainpipe must be 
reduced to a lower point than the pressure in the 
auxiliary reservoir, otherwise the triple will not move 
and open the port between the auxiliary and the brake 
cylinder. 

The Parts of the Plain Triple Valve consist of only six 
things, besides the casing which holds them all, and 
are shown in Fig. 233 (which shows the way the new 
plain triple now used for driver brakes would look if it 
was cut in half), and they are designated as follows: 
23 is called the tr'ple piston; 24 is the slide valve; 25 
is the graduating valve; 26 is the graduating stem, 
and 27 is the graduating spring; 32 is the U spring 
over the slide valve. 

The casing is so shaped that one part of it forms a 
cylinder for the triple piston to move in, and is marked 
B, and adjoining it is a chamber having a flat side 
(called the slide valve seat), for the slide valve to slide 
on, and is marked C. 

The flat side of this chamber, which forms the seat 
on which the slide valve rests, has two ports cut 
through it; the one marked /leads to the brake cylin- 
der, and the other, marked //, leads to the atmos- 
phere. 

In the slide valve there are also two ports; one 
passes clear through the valve, as shown by the 
letters /, p-p, and the other is a groove cut in the bot- 
tom of the valve, and marked g, and when the valve is 
moved toward the left end of chamber C (in other 
words, moves down), the port through the valvcr 



546 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



marked/ connects with the port in the seat marked/, 
so that the air in the auxiliary can pass through the 



4'PiPCTAP 
TO AUXILIARY RESERVOIR 

Y 




4>IPCTAF^ 
TO THAW P^ 

w 



Figure 233 
New Style Plain Triple Valve 

va've, and valve seat and on through pipe connectior 
X directly into the brake cylinder; and when the slide 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 547 

valve is in the opposite end of chamber C the groove^ 
in the bottom of the slide valve connects the two ports 
/and h together, so that one end of the groove rests 
directly over the port leading to the brake cylinder, 
and the other end rests over the port leading to the 
atmosphere, thus forming a direct opening between 
the brake cylinder and the atmosphere; therefore, as 
the triple is so connected to the auxiliary by pipe 
connection Y that the auxiliary pressure is always 
in direct communication with chamber C, in which 
the slide valve moves, and as the port in the seat 
marked / is the only way for the air to get in or 
out of the brake cylinder, with this kind of a triple, 
it is very evident that when the slide valve is 
moved along on its seat until the .port in the valve 
marked /-/ comes opposite the port in the seat 
marked/, the air in the auxiliary is free to pass into 
the brake cylinder, and set the brake. And when the 
slide valve is forced back again to its original position, 
as shown in Fig. 233, the air in the brake cylinder is 
free to pass out to the atmosphere through ports/ g, . 
h and exhaust port k, and thereby release the brakes. 
Therefore, as the flow of air from the auxiliary to the 
brake cylinder, and from the brake cylinder to the 
atmosphere is dependent upon the movement of 
the slide valve, it is very necessary to understand how 
this movement is accomplished. 

The stem of the triple piston extends into chamber 
C in which the slide valve moves, and the valve is 
hung on this stem; there is a packing ring (30) around 
the triple piston, making a tight joint against the walls 
of cylinder B, and as one end of this cylinder is al- 
ways open to chamber C (which always contains auxil- 
iary pressure), and the other end of cylinder B is al- 



548 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

ways open to the trainpipe, it will be seen at once thai 
the triple piston stands between the auxiliary and 
trainpipe pressure at all times, and if these pressures 
are equal, and the piston is in full release position, as 
shown in Fig. 233, should the pressure on the train- 
pipe side of the piston become lower than that on the 
slide valve side, the piston would be moved by the 
auxiliary pressure, and of course draw the slide valve 
with it, causing the port in the valve marked / to 
come opposite the port in the seat marked/, and allow 
the air from the auxiliary to pass into the brake 
cylinder and set the brake. 

Now^ that the air is in the brake cylinder, 
the next point to learn is how to release the 
brake. 

To Release the Brake It Is necessary to force the slide 
valve back to the position it occupied before the brake 
was set, as shown in Fig. 233. 

To do this the pressure stored in the m.ain reservoir, 
on the engine is used, for when the engineer places his 
brake valve in full release position the main reservoir 
pressure quickly raises the pressure on the trainpipe 
side of the triple piston and forces it back to the 
position shown in Fig. 233, and, as the slide valve 
has to go back with it, the groove g in the bottom 0/ 
the valve is placed so that one end of it rests over the 
port marked / in the valve seat, and the other end 
rests over the port marked h in the vLlve seat, conse- 
quently the air in the brake cylinder is free to pass out 
to the atmosphere through ports/, g, h and through a 
passage around the casing to the triple exhaust marked 
k. The air having thus escaped from the brake cylin- 
der the heavy spring in the cylinder, marked 9, in Fig. 
238, drives the brake piston back from the levers. 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 549 

which allows the shoes to drop away from the wheels, 
and the brake is released. 

The whistling noise heard when the brakes are re- 
leasing on passenger cars is caused by the air escaping 
through the small ports in the triple (on freight cars 
the air exhausts through the pressure-retaining valve 
on top of the car), and if this whistling is weak, when 
releasing after a full application has been made, it in- 
dicates that either a portion of the air has already 
escaped from the cylinder through a bad packing 
leather around the brake piston, or there is too much 
piston travel, which allowed the air to expand in the 
cylinder more than it should have done; in other 
words, a high pressure will rush out quicker than a low 
pressure, for, as you know, the faster wind blows the 
louder it whistles. 

Recharging the Auxiliary. Having set the brakes 
and released them, it now becomes necessary to re- 
charge the auxiliary reservoir, to be ready for the next 
application. 

The brake cylinder gets its power from the auxil- 
iary, and the latter must always be kept charged ready 
to meet all the demands made upon it by the cylinder. 
If the auxiliary is only part charged, the force 
with which the brakes set will be correspondingly 
weak. 

Also remember that just as soon as the slide vaive 
moves to let the air out of the brake cylinder the feed 
grooves between the trainpipe and auxiliary are 
opened to admit air again into the auxiliary. 

Begin at the point indicated by W, Fig. 233 and 
follow the arrows; it will be seen that the air travels 
through a passage (a-a) in the cas ng, to a chamber 
indicated by A, and from this chamber there are two 



5SO LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

openings {c, Cy) which allow the air to pass into the 
cylinder in which the triple piston moves, as indi- 
;:ated by B. As the air passes from chamber A it 
strikes the plain side of the triple piston and forces it 
<o the extreme end of cylinder B, and as the piston is 
supposed to be a tight fit in cylinder B, the only chance 
the air has to get into chamber C is by passing through 
a small groove cut in the wall of cylinder B, as indi- 
cated by 7n. This is called the "teed groove." As 
this groove m is only as long as the head of the piston 
is thick, the piston must be all the way back before 
the air can enter this groove; the piston only forms 
a seat about half way from its center to its outer edge, 
in other words, there is a shoulder on the slide valve 
side of the piston and this necessitates another groove 
to be cut in this shoulder, which is shown by the letter 
?i. The air can now pass from cylinder B by way of 
the feed grooves, m and ?i, into chamber C, and over 
the top of the slide valve through the pipe connection 
Y into the auxiliary. 

If the space to be filled by the pump is merely the 
main reservoir, the pump will stop when the main 
reservoir is charged to seventy pounds, provided the 
governor is set at seventy; but if the engineer places 
the handle of his brake valve in position so that the 
air in the main reservoir can flow direct into the train- 
pipe, it means that there is just that much more space 
to be filled before the pump will stop; then if the 
auxiliary is cut into the trainpipe by opening the 
cut-out cock on the cross-over pipe, it means that there 
is still more space for the air to flow into, and as the 
pump will not stop until there is seventy pounds in 
the main reservoir, and as the main reservoir cannot 
get its seventy pounds until the trainpipe has its 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



551 



seventy pounds, and as the trainpipe cannot get its 
seventy pounds unti' the auxiliary gets its seventy 
pounds, it follows that the pump will continue to work 
until the auxiliar}^ trainpipe and main reservoir are 
all equally charged up to seventy pounds. 

Owing to the smallness of the feed groove in the 
triple through which the air passes to get into the 
auxiliary, the trainpipe will naturally fill quicker than 
the auxiliary, and cause the pump to stop temporarily 
but as soon as the trainpipe pressure is again lowered 
by the air passing through the feed grooves into the 
auxiliary, the pump will again start, and continue to 
compress air until every bit of space is filled to 
seventy pounds. 

If the main reservoir, trainpipe or auxiliary reservoir 
leaks, the pump will not stop at all, and a great many 
leaks will very soon wear a pump out. There are three 
things to remember in charging up a trainpipe after 
having made an application of the brake. First, leaks 
of an}^ kind will prevent getting the required pressure 
in the time it should be gotten, and bad leaks will 
prevent it entirely. Second, the strainer and feed 
grooves in the triple, must be kept clean to allow the 
air to pass freely. Third, the packing ring around 
the triple piston must be a good fit to prevent the 
auxiliary charging too rapidly, and to insure against 
charging too quickly is the reason for having a shoul- 
der on the slide valve side of the piston, for if any air 
leaks around the packing ring it cannot enter the 
auxiliary except through the second feed groove, as 
shown by 71 in plate i, unless the shoulder on the 
piston has a bad seat. 

A still greater reason for having the packing ring 
(30) tight, is to insure the brake against "sticking,'' as 



552 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

it will if the trainpipe pressure equalizes with the 
auxiliary without moving the slide valv^e. 

The reason for having the feed grooves so small in 
the triples is to allow all the auxiliaries on the train to 
charge as nearly together as possible, and also to assist 
in making the triple sensitive to the slightest reduc- 
tion of trainpipe pressure, for, if the feed groove was 
large, when the air was drawn from the trainpipe a 
considerable amount of air from the auxiliary would 
flow back into the trainpipe before the piston moved; 
but, as it is, the feed groo\'e is so small and so short 
that it requires less than a two pound reduction to 
cause the triple piston to move and shut off communi- 
cation between the auxiliary and trainpipe. 

For the same reason (sensitiveness) the piston 
packing ring must have a good fit, or else the auxiliary 
and trainpipe pressures will equalize, and thereby fail 
to move the piston when desired in setting or releasing 
the brakes. This is especially true on long trains. 

If ever^^thing was tight, and all the parts working as 
they should, and trainpipe pressure was kept constantly 
at seventy pounds, a one-hundred car train could be 
charged as quickly as could one car, as under such 
perfect condition the air will pass through the feed 
grooves at the rate of one pound a second, but as 
this is never the case in actual practice, it will take 
about five minutes to charge up a short train of ten 
cars, and about twelve to fifteen minutes for a train 
of thirty or forty cars, with comparatively no train- 
pipe leaks, and where there are leaks it naturally takes 
rriuch longer. 

Thus far but one kind of application of the brakes 

has been considered, viz., a "full service application," 

vit there are three kinds of application, each of 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 553 

which will be explained in its proper place. There 
is, first, "the full service application"; second, "the 
partial service application"; and, third, "the emer- 
gency application." Besides the triple piston and 
slide valve, the functions of which have just been ex- 
plained, there are four other parts pertaining to the 
plain triple valve, each one of which has its particular 
function to perform. Referring to Fig. 233, the gradu- 
ating valve which works within the slide valve is 
marked 25, the graduating stem 26, and the graduating 
spring which surrounds it and holds it to its seat is 
marked 27, and the U spring marked 32. 

The graduating valve makes it possible to make a 
partial service application, for without it the pressure 
in the auxiliary reservoir would be reduced much below 
that in the trainpipe, after a ten pound reduction, be- 
fore the triple would lap itself, as there would be 
nothing to stop the flow of air from the auxiliary into 
the brake cylinder, until the auxiliary pressure be- 
comes low enough for the trainpipe pressure to over- 
come the friction on the seat of the slide valve; but 
with the graduating valve in good condition, when 
a reduction of say ten pounds is made on the train- 
pipe, the triple will automatically lap itself as soon as 
a fraction over ten pounds has left the auxiliary. 

This is done as follows: When the trainpipe pres- 
sure is reduced below that in the auxiliary the triple 
piston moves and carries with it the graduating valve, 
for, as will be seen by reference to Fig. 233, the 
graduating valve is connected directly to the stem 
of the triple piston by a small pin, as shown by the 
dotted lines, and, when the piston moves, the gradu- 
ating valve is carried from its seat in the slide valve 
and opens port/, so that when the slide valve is in 



554 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

service position the auxiliary air can pass through 
the slide valve by way of ports /and/, then through 
port / in the seat of the slide valve and on through 
pipe connection X direct into the brake cylinder; as 
only ten pounds was drawn from the trainpipe, just as 
soon as a fraction over ten pounds flows from the 
auxiliary, the trainpipe pressure being now the strong- 
est forces the triple piston towards the auxiliary end 
of its cylinder, but it can only force it a very short dis- 
tance, for the reason that the distance between the 
end of the slide valve and the shoulder on the stem 
of the piston is only three-sixteenths of an inch, and 
when the piston has moved this distance it is stopped 
by the slide valve, because the auxiliary pressure, 
aided by the U spring, is firmly holding the slide 
valve, on account of the friction being greater on the 
slide valve seat than it is around the edge of the 
triple piston, and when the piston is thus stopped by 
the slide valve, the graduating valve is now back on its 
seat, and no more air can flow from the auxiliary into 
the brake cylinder, until the trainpipe pressure is 
again reduced and the graduating valve again unseated 
by the movement of the triple piston. 

The slide valve does not move when the second 
reduction is made, but stands in the same position as 
it assumed on the first reduction. Consequently, 
as soon as the graduating valve is unseated the air 
will again flow into the brake cylinder; but when the 
air in the brake cylinder finally becomes as strong as 
it is in the auxiliary (or equalizes), the pressure in the 
auxiliary no longer falls below that in the trainpipe 
and therefore the graduating valve remains off its 
seat, because the triple piston does not now move 
back as it did when the first reduction was made, as 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 555 

the pressure in the trainpipe is now as low or lower 
than it is in the auxiliary, and the brakes are now 
fully applied. It will thus be seen that a "full ser- 
vice application" may be made without the graduating 
valve, but that it is a necessity in making a "partial 
^service application." If the engineer simply wants 
to slow his train up, but does not want to corhe to a 
full stop, he can draw off any amount of air from the 
trainpipe he desires, and when he laps his brake 
valve, the triple valve will, by means of the gradu- 
ating valve, let a corresponding amount of air from 
the auxiliary into the brake cylinder and automatically 
lap ports l-p-p in the slide valve, but if the engineer 
should draw his trainpipe pressure down below the 
point at which the auxiliary and brake cylinder equal- 
ize, he would not only be wasting the trainpipe pres- 
sure, but would have trouble when it came time for him 
to release his brakes as will be explained later on. 

The functions of the graduating stem and spring, are 
to aid in making an "emegency application." When 
this kind of application is made it is only in case of 
danger, and therefore it is desired that the air in the 
auxiliary should be passed into the brake cylinder as 
quickly as possible, and in order to do this it is nec- 
essary to have the entire slide valve clear the port in 
the seat through which the air has to pass. 

In making ordinary stops this very quick action 
is not required, and in order to prevent the slide valve 
making the full stroke, there is a projection on the 
trainpipe side of the triple piston which strikes 
against the graduating stem (26), and as this stem is 
held to its seat by Ihe graduating spring {2j), the 
strength of this spring combined with the pressure in 
the trainpipe causes the triple piston to stop, and in 



556 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

doing so the slide valve is held in such a position that 
port/ is in register with port/, and of course the brakes 
are applied gradually. 

But if the pressure in the trainpipe is reduced sud- 
denly, the auxiliary pressure causes the triple piston 
to strike the graduating stem a hammer blow and over- 
comes the tension of the spring so that the slide valve 
entirely clears the port in the seat, and the auxiliary 
pressure immediately equalizes with the brake cylin- 
der. (This refers to the plain triple. The emergency 
action of the quick-action triple will be described later 
on.) 

The U spring (32) is placed over the slide valve for 
the reason that if the brake is applied and all the 
air is let out of the trainpipe, and the car cut off from 
the engine, the brake could not be "bled" off by the 
release valve on the auxiliary if the slide valve could 
not be lifted off its seat by the brake cylinder pressure, 
but as there is a slight lift to the slide valve for this 
purpose, the U spring is required to reseat the valve, 
so that when the auxiliary is again recharged no air 
can get under the slide valve and pass out to the at- 
mosphere through port h in the valve seat. 

If there is a great deal of oil on the slide valve seat 
it will prevent the slide valve from being forced up 
by brake cylinder pressure, when a single car is being 
"bled off," and the brake cannot be released at all 
until the air finally leaks out around the packing 
leather in the cylinder. In such a case the release 
signal is very handy. 

So far, the "plain" triple valve only has been under 
consideration, but as all cars are now supposed to be 
equipped with the "quick-action triple valve," it is 
necessary to study its action also, and to Bote the 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 557 

points of difference between the two types of triples, 
and what is gained by having the quick-action triple. 
When an engineer applies the brakes he has to draw 
ihe trainpipe pressure down by letting it escape to 
the atmosphere through a port in the brake valve, 
and as the triple pistons will not move until the 
trainpipe pressure is reduced below that in the auxil- 
iary reservoirs, it naturaly follows that on a train, of 
say thirty cars, equipped with plain triples, the brakes 
on the head end will set before the ones on the rear 
end, for the reason that the air in the front end of the 
trainpipe has to get out of the way before the air in 
the rear end can escape, and whenever the pressure 
on the trainpipe side of any triple is reduced lower 
than the auxiliary side, that triple will move and set 
the brake at once, and the difference between the 
plain and the quick-action triple is that the trainpipe 
pressure can be reduced faster with a "quick-action" 
triple than it can with a plain one, and consequently 
the brakes on a long train can be applied more rapidly 
with "quick-action" triples. The difference, there- 
fore, between the two kinds of valves, is that with 
the plain triple there is but one way of getting the 
trainpipe pressure away from the triple piston, and 
that is through the brake valve (the front door), but 
with the quick-action triple there is an extra outlet 
through which the trainpipe pressure can escape when 
an emergency application is made, and thus cause the 
brakes on the entire train to be applied in about two 
secondSo This extra outlet is called the "emergency 
valve." and is shown in Fig. 237. 

The parts contained in the quick action triple which 
are not in the plain one, are shown in Figures 234, 235, 
236 and 237, and are indicated as follows; The emer- 



00^ 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



gency piston is marked 8; the guide for this piston, 
which also forms a seat for the emergency valve, is 
marked 9; the emergency valve is 10; the check 
valve spring is 12; the check valve is 15, and the gas- 
ket which separates chamber X from chamber Y is 




Avuriean MaeM^Itt 

Figure 234 
QncK-ACTiox Triple ix Release axd Chargixg Position 

marked 14. This gasket extends clear across the 
triple, but a portion of it is cut away just over the 
emergency valve so that when that valve is unseated, 
as it is in an emergency application, the air in chamber 
Y can pass into chamber X and the brake cylinder., and 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 559 

another hole is cut in this same gasket at e, so that the 
trainpipe pressure, which enters the triple at A, can 
pass freely into chambers /and h. 

The quick-action triple has five positions: release, 
charging, service, lap and emergency. 

Release and charging positions are in fact one and 
the same, as shown in Fig. 234. While the air is being 
released from the brake cylinder by way of the port 
in the slide valve seat, etc., as previously described and 
illustrated in Fig. 233, the auxiliary is being charged 
by way of the feed grcroves marked jn and n in 
Fig. 233, and i and k in Fig. 234, where a different set 
of numerals and letters is used, as for instance, the 
train pipe connection to the triple is marked A, while 
iii Fig. 233 it is marked W. 

By reference to the arrows in Fig. 234 it will be 
noted that after the air enters the triple at A, it passes 
through a passage in the casing, in the same manner 
as in Fig. 233 to a chamber having two openings into 
the cylinder containing the triple piston, and from this 
cylinder the air passes through the same two feed 
grooves that in Fig. 233 are marked m and n^ but in 
Fig. 234 are designated by the letters i and k, on into 
the slide valve chamber, and instead of entering the 
auxiliary at the pipe connection at Y, as in Fig. 233, 
it passes on through the slide valve chamber into the 
auxiliary, so that no matter whether it is a plain or 
quick-action triple, the auxiliary pressure is always on 
the slide valve side of the triple piston, while the 
trainpipe pressure is on the opposite side. The 
difference, therefore, between the two kinds of triple 
valves is the emergency attachment which will be 
explained by reference to Fig. 235. 

Emergency Position of Q,uick-action Triple Valve. A 



56o 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



sudden reduction of trainpipe pressure is necessary 
to cause the triple to assume the emergency position. 
When a sudden reduction is made it causes the triple 
piston (4) to strike the graduating stem (21) such a 
hammer blow that the graduating spring (22) is unable 




Figure 235 
QuiCK-ACTiox Triple ix Emergency Position 

to stop it from making its full stroke, and as it has novi 
traveled further than it did in service position, the 
slide valve has also been moved a correspondingly 
greater distance on its seat, which brings a big sloi, 
or in some triples, a removed corner (not shown) in the 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 561 

slide valve over a port in the seat (indicated by dotted 
lines behind port Z), and allows the auxiliary pressure 
to fall on the emergency piston (8), which strikes the 
stem of valve 10 and forces it from its seat (which is 
kept closed by spring 12 and the trainpipe pressure in 
Y), and valve 10 being thus unseated, the air from Y 
rushes into the brake cylinder. 

As all this is done so very quickly that the trainpipe 
pressure has as yet reduced but very little, the re- 
maining trainpipe pressure forces the check valve up 
and also rushes into the brake cylinder until it 
equalizes what is left in the trainpipe, when spring 
12 reseats the check valve, preventing the air in 
the brake cylinder from flowing back into the train- 
pipe. 

At the same time that the big slot in the back of 
the slide valve reached its position over the port in the 
seat leading to the emergency piston, another small port 
in the slide valve, marked S in Fig. 234, is placed in 
register with port r in the valve seat, taking the place 
of port Z, which allows the auxiliary pressure to flow 
into the brake cylinder on top of what went in from 
the trainpipe. 

The opening around the emergency valve is so much 
larger than the port s in the slide valve that virtually 
no air enters the brake cylinder from the auxiliary 
until the check valve closes on the charge received 
from the trainpipe. 

It is this air from the trainpipe that gives the added 
twenty per cent brake power after an emergency appli- 
cation; for the air which enters the brake cylinder 
from the trainpipe has the same effect as shortening 
the piston travel, because it forces the auxiliary pres- 
sure to equalize just that much higher than it would 



s62 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



if the brake cylinder was empty when the auxiliary 
pressure started to flow into it. 

On account of the trainpipe pressure having two 
outlets, (one by way of the brake valve, and the other 
b}- way of valve lo), when an emergency application 
is made, it is reduced so suddenly that the next triple 
is thrown into quick action, because the pressure that 
was holding that triple to release position immediately 
rushes back into the empty space just created in 
the trainpipe by the first reduction, and as it cannot 
be in both places at the same time, the triple is left 
Avithout sufficient trainpipe pressure to hold it, when 
the pressure on the auxiliary side of that triple piston 
drives it to emergency position, which in turn creates 
a vacancy in the trainpipe on that car which the next 
car tries to fill, and so on, till all the brakes on the 
entire train are set in emergency, and it all happens 
so quick that the triples on a train of fifty cars can 
be thrown into quick action in about two seconds. 

Fig. 236 illustrates the common form of plain 
triple, and before the advent of the quick-action triple, 
it was the standard for passenger cars. It is now 
mainly used on driver and tender brakes having cylin- 
ders of 10 inches, or less; but with larger cylinders 
the new plain triple, as shown in Fig. 233 is used. 

The principal difference between these two kinds 
of plain triples is the arrangement of the cut-out cock. 

In Fig. 236 the cut-out cock is attached right to the 
triple, and by turning the handle, which controls plug 
13, the triple is caused to work "automatic" by placing 
it horizontal, and to cut it out place it at an angle of 
forty-five degrees; to make it work "straight air" 
place the handle perpendicular, for then plug 13 is 
turned so that the end of the passage which is shown 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



5^.1 



to be in register with port d, would then be in register 
with port ay and the other end of e would register 
with d^ which would allow trainpipe pressure to flow 
direct into the brake cylinder through ports Uy e and d^ 



TD ABUAHv^ReseRvDi 




Figure 236 
Plain Triple Old Style Valve 

in other words, the triple valve proper and auxiliary 
reservoir would not be used when the handle was 
turned on for "straight air." This is so seldom done 
nowadays that there is a lug cast in the handles of all 
such plain triples to prevent cutting them in straight air. 



S64 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

When it becomes necessary to bleed off a brak? 
that is set with a plain triple drain the auxiliary before 
closing the cut-out cock, for, when cut out, the posi-. 
tion of the passage is changed so that the air in the 
brake cylinder cannot escape through the triple 
exhaust. 

With the new plain triple, Fig. 233, the cut-out cock 
is on the pipe leading from the triple to the brake 
.:viinder. By this arrangement it is possible to keep 
the driver brakes temporarily set on descending 
mountain grades, until the auxiliary is fully recharged, 
by simply setting the brakes and then cutting the 
driver brakes out before releasing. Keep the driver 
brakes set while the train brakes are being released, 
by cutting out the driver brakes just before releasing. 

In the new plain triple the ports are necessarily larger 
on account of handling a greater volume of air 

Pressure-Retaining Valve 

Many enginemen and trainmen utterly fail to realize 
the importance of this little device, and in view of the 
wonderful aid it is to handling trains down heavy 
grades, it is surprising that, b^^ the average man, it is 
i::ss understood than almost any part of the equip- 
ment. 

A retaining valve, as the name implies, is for the 
purpose of retaining a certain amount of pressure in 
the brake cylinder after the triple valve has been 
moved to release position, and by reference to Fig. 
2^7 its action will be readily understood. Into the 
triple exhaust a small pipe is attached and extends from 
the triple to the top of the car at the end where the 
hand-brake staff is, and onto this pipe is attached the 
retaining valve at the connection marked X. The 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



565 



handle (5) controls a plug (6) similar to the cut-out 
plug (13) in the plain triple. When the handle is 
turned as you see it in plate 8, port c through the plug 
is in register with port b-b, and the air which comes 
from the triple exhaust is forced against the seat of the 
valve 4, which raises and allows the pressure to 
escape to the atmosphere through port d. As port d 
is controlled by valve 4, the air will exhaust only 
while this valve is up, and 
as the weight of the valve, 
combined with the size of 
the parts, requires a pres- 
sure of fifteen pounds to 
keep it up, just as soon as 
the pressure in the brake 
cylinder has been reduced to 
a fraction less than fifteen 
pounds to the square inch, 
the valve will seat and re- 
tain the remaining pressure 
in the brake cylinder until 
the handle is turned down. 
When the handle is turned 
down it brings port a in reg- 
ister with the lower part of b^ and port c is turned to 
register with port e, and thereby allows all the air in 
the brake cylinder to escape to the atmosphere. 

Therefore if the handle of the retainer is kept turned 
down the engineer can release the brakes from the 
engine, but if the handle is turned up (unless the brake 
leaks off) it will stay set until the handle is turned down . 

Retainers were formerly made to hold only ten 
pounds in the brake cylinder, but are now made r^ 
hold fifteen. 




AmerUsan HaotanUlb 



X 

Figure 237 
Pressure-Retaining Valve 



5^ 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




Figure 238. — -Triple Valve, Aux- 
iliary Reservoir axd Brake 
Cylinder Combixed 



With the retainer 
handle turned up, the 
second application of 
the brakes will give a 
much higher brake- 
cylinder pressure, if 
the auxiliary has been 
allowed time enough to 
recharge, because the 
pressure that is already 
in the cylinder will 
force the auxiliary to 
equalize much higher 
than it would if the 
cylinder was empty to 
start with (in the same 
manner that the 
emergency application 
causes an added pres- 
sure on account of the 
trainpipe pressure en- 
tering the cylinder be- 
fore the auxiliary pres- 
sure has a chance to 
get in). For this reason 
it is best to apply the 
brakes and recharge the 
auxiliaries as soon as 
possible after passing 
the summit of a moun- 
tain grade, and besides 
it gives an increased 
reserve of brake power. 

Folder plates 32 and 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 567 

33 show complete illustrations of the Westinghouse 
quick-action automatic air brake equipment, and the 
Westinghouse standard high speed air brake. 

Questions 

685. What can be said of the air brake as regards 
safety and convenience in running trains? 

686. How many systems of air brakes are in use? 

687. Of how many parts does the modern air brake 
consist? 

688. Name them in their regular order. 
68q. What is the function of the air pump? 

690. What is the main reservoir for? 

691. What is the engineer's brake valve used for? 

692. What does the duplex air gauge show? 

693. What is the function of the pump governor? 

694. Of what does the trainpipe consist and what 
is it for? 

695. Describe the several duties of the quick-action 
triple valve. 

696. For what purpose is the auxiliary reservoir? 

697. What parts are contained within the brake cy- 
linder? 

698. What takes place within the brake cylinder 
when air from the auxiliary is allowed to pass into 
it? 

699. Where is the pressure retaining valve located 
on freight cars and what is it for? 

700. What is the function of the automatic slack 
adjuster? 

701. For what purpose is the air brake release 
signal? 

702. Where is it located on freight cars? 



568 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

703. When this signal appears above the car what 
does it indicate? 

704. When the signal is withdrawn what does it 
show? 

705. If the signal remains up what is indicated? 

706. Where is this signal located on flat cars and 
gondolas? 

707. Where is it located in passenger cars? 

708. What extra apparatus is requ^ired to equip a 
passenger car with the high-speed brake? 

709. How many and what size are the air pumps 
made by the Westinghouse Co.? 

710. How many main pistons are there in the pump? 

711. How are they connected? 

712. What is the principal difference between the 
construction of the steam ends of the eight inch and 
the nine and one-half-inch pump? 

713. What difference is there between the two 
pumps in regard to the air end? 

714. Explain the action of the steam end of the 
pump. 

715. How many valves are there in the air end of 
the pump? 

716. How much lift do the air valves have in the 
eight-inch pump? 

717. Explain the action of the air end of the pump. 

718. Of what is the main steam valve in the 9I- 
inch pump composed? 

719. Explain the action of the steam end of the 9^- 
inch pump. 

720. How much larger volume of air can the 91- 
inch pump compress than can the 8-inch pump? 

721. How much more air can the ii-inch pump 
compress than the 9^-inch pump? 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 569 

722. Is the ii-inch pump made on the same prin- 
ciple as the 9|^-inch pump? 

723. What is meant by right and left-hand pump? 

724. How may a pump be changed from right to 
left? 

725. What rule regarding lubrication should be ob- 
served in starting and running a pump? 

726. What precautions should be taken regarding 
the oiling of the air end? 

727. Where is the pump governor located? 

728. What are the several functions of the pump 
governor? 

729. What causes the pump governor to act? 

730. What is the function of the engineer's brake 



valve 



731. Name the essential parts of this valve. 

732. For what purpose is the rotary valve? 

733. What is the equalizing discharge valve for? 

734. For what purpose is the equalizing reservoir? 

735. What is the function of the feed valve attach- 
ment? 

736. Explain how it controls the trainpipe pressure. 

737. How many kinds of feed valves are there? 

738. In what respect do they differ? 

739. Which type is preferable and why is it? 

740. What term is used to designate the new type 
of engineer's brake valve from the old one? 

741. In what position must the brake handle of the 
brake valve be in order to have the feed valve in 
operation? 

742. In what manner does the compressed air find its 
way to the brake cylinder? 

743. How are the brakes released? 

744. Is it possible to release the brakes with the 



570 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

handle of the brake valve in any other position than 
that of full release? 

745. How many positions are there for the brake 
valve? 

746. What are they? 

747. What is the function of the brake valve in each 
one of these positions? 

748. What main reservoir and trainpipe pressures 
shoul(^ be carried with the quick-action brake equip- 
ment? 

Ans. — Ninety pounds in the main reservoir, which 
is shown by the red hand, and seventy pounds in the 
trainpipe, which is shown by the black hand. 

749. When the high-speed brake equipment is used 
what pressure should be carried? 

Ans. — One hundred and twenty pounds in the main 
reservoir and no pounds in the trainpipe. 

750. When the high pressure control is used, what 
pressure should be used on the engine? 

Ans. — When a light train is being hauled there 
should be ninety pounds and seventy pounds, the same 
as with the quick-action brake, but with a loaded 
train there should be no pounds in the main reservoir 
and ninety in the trainpipe. 

• 751. What is meant by excess pressure, and what is 
it used for? 

Ans. — Excess pressure is the amount of air carried 
in the main reservoir over and above what is carried 
in the trainpipe. If the trainpipe governor is set at 
seventy pounds and the main reservoir or pump gover- 
nor at ninety pounds, there would be an excess pres- 
sure of twenty pounds in the main reservoir. The ob- 
ject in carrying this extra or excess pressure is to en- 
able the engineer to quickly recharge the trainpipe 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 571 

after making a reduction, in order to strike the triple 
pistons a hammer blow to drive them to release 
position. 



CHAPTER XII 

AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES— CONTINUED 

Having studied at some length the Westinghouse 
system of air brake equipment, it is now in order to 
devote a space to the New York system of applying 
the brakes to car wheels through the medium of com- 
pressed air. The general rules that cover the West- 
inghouse system in regard to train handling, etc., will, 
with a few minor exceptions, apply also to the New 
York air brake. The principal difference between 
the two systems lies in the method of compressing 
the air, for while the Westinghouse air pump is a 
simple air pump, consisting of a single steam cylin- 
der, a single air cylinder, pistons, valves, etc., the New 
York air pump is a duplex air pump, consisting of 
two steam cylinders, two air cylinders, fitted with the 
necessary pistons, valves, etc., and the steam cylin- 
ders are underneath the air cylinders, while with the 
Westinghouse system they are placed on top. The 
diameter of the two steam cylinders in the New York 
duplex air pump are the same, but the diameters of the 
air cylinders differ. One of the air cylinders is larger 
in diameter than its mate is. The larger air cylinder 
is termed the low-pressure cylinder, for the reason that 
the air first enters it under atmospheric pressure, is 
then compressed to a higher pressure by the return 
stroke of the piston and forced into the other air cylin- 

572 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 573 

der of smaller diameter, termed the high-pressure 
cylinder, where it is compressed to a still higher 
pressure by the return stroke of the high-pressure 
piston, and forced under this pressure into the main 
reservoir. The pump is thus in a sense a compound 
as well as a duplex pump. These pumps are now 
being made in four sizes, graded as follows: No. i, 
No. 2, No. 6 and No. 5. In general principle they are 
all the same. The dimensions of the different sizes 
are as follows: 

No. I. — Steam cylinders five inches in diameter, high- 
pressure air cylinder five inches in diameter, low-pres- 
sure air cylinder seven inches in diameter, stroke, nine 
inches. 

No. 2. — Steam cylinders seven inches in diarneter, 
high-pressure air cylinder, seven inches in diameter, 
low-pressure air cylinder ten inches in diameter, stroke 
nine inches. 

No. 6. — Steam cylinders seven inches in diameter, 
high-pressure air cylinder seven inches in diameter, 
low-pressure air cylinder eleven inches in diameter, 
stroke ten inches. 

No. 5. — Steam cylinders eight inches in diameter, 
high-pressure air cylinder eight inches in diameter, low- 
pressure air cylinder twelve inches in diameter, stroke 
twelve inches. 

When the New York duplex air pump is in operation 
there is but one set of pistons, one steam and one air 
piston, in motion at anyone time. Each steam piston 
controls the action of the reversing valve for the 
opposite piston, and the valves are so adjusted that 
when one piston has completed a stroke it must wait 
for the other piston to make a stroke before it can 
move again. 



574 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




2-DRJ&&, 
2 DP hi' 
2 OP 19 
2 OP 16 



1 DP 7 

2 DP 5 



DRAIN COCK 



Figure 239 
New York Duplex Atr Pump, Pistons at Rest 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 575 

The reversing mechanism of the New York air pump 
is similar to that of the Westinghouse. The steam 
piston rod is hollow, and on the reversing-valve side 
of the piston there is a plate bolted, that performs the 
same function in the New York air pump as does the 
reversing valve-rod plate in the Westinghouse air 
pump, that is, it moves the reversing valve up or 
down. Reference to Fig. 239, which shows the pistons 
at rest, will make this clear. 

It will be noticed that this reversing valve rod has a 
shoulder on one end, and a button on the other end, 
for the purpose of controlling the movement of the 
small D slide valve that is connected to the reversing 
rod, in the same manner as in the Westinghouse. It 
will be seen by reference to Fig. 239 that both sets of 
pistons are at the lower end of the stroke. The 
boiler connection is clearly shown to the left. The 
dotted lines crossing each other indicate steam ports. 
It should be remembered that the reversing valve that 
controls the admission of steam to the right-hand 
cylinder is located under the left cylinder and vice 
versa. 

Both slide valves are in their bottom positions in the 
cut. Fig. 239, and as steam enters the valve chamber 
under the left-hand piston, it passes on through port 
g to the valve chamber under the right-hand piston, 
and live steam also passes through the port marked b 
to the under side of the right-hand piston, and at the 
same time passes up through the port c to the top 
side of the left-hand piston. The steam pressure 
accumulated under the right-hand, or low-pressure 
piston, forces it up as shown in Fig. 240. Just as this 
piston reaches the end of its up stroke, the reversing 
rod plate engages the button on the end of the reversin^i 



S76 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




2 DP 66 
2 DP 55 
2 DP 19 
2 OP 15 



2 DP 60 
t DP 7 

DRAIN CCX:K * '^-5- 



Figure 240 
New York Duplex Air Pump, 
upstroke, low-pressure piston 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



577 



t?^ PIPE 




I'PIPE 
fROM BOILER , 



2 DP 
2 DP 65 
2 DP 19/ 
2 DP 15, 



DRAIN C OCK 

Figure 241 

New York Duplex Air Pump 

up stroke, high-pressure piston 



1 DP 7 

zope 



578 LOCOMOTHE ENGINEERING 

rod and pulls it up. This action connects port c with 
the exhaust cavity F, and at the same time live steam 
from the reversing valve chamber under the right-hand 
piston passes through port a to the under side of the 
left-hand piston, so that while the steam is being 
exhausted from the top side of this piston live steam 
on the under side is forcing it up, as shown in Fig. 
241. 

As the port <^, leading from the under side of the low- 
pressure piston, is still closed to the exhaust cavity 
by the left-hand slide valve, so the right-hand, or low- 
pressure piston, is held at the top of the stroke by the 
steam that is confined under it, but as soon as the left- 
hand piston reaches the end of its up stroke the rever- 
sing rod is pulled up by the reversing rod plate, there- 
by connecting port b with port /by way of cavity e in 
the slide valve, thus allowing the steam to exhaust 
from the under side of the right-hand piston, while 
at the same time live steam from the left-hand slide 
valve chamber passes through port d to the top of the 
right-hand piston, which forces it down, and when 
it reaches the end of its down stroke it reverses the 
slide valve, thereby exhausting the steam from the 
under side of the left-hand piston, and at the same 
time admits live steam to the top side of that piston 
which forces it down. Both pistons have thus made 
a full stroke up and down. 

This valve arrangement is very simple and at the 
same time very effective. There are no packing rings 
to contend with in the reversing valve, and if too 
much oil is not allowed to get into the valve chambers 
there will very little trouble result from this mechan- 
ism. If too much oil is allowed to get into the slide 
valve chamber, it will cause the valve to be forced off 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 579 

its scat, thereby disarranging the port connections. 
The drain cock at the bottom should always be left 
open when the pump is not running, and in starting 
up it should be left open until dry steam appears. 
Having studied the steam end, it is now in order to 
take up the air end and examine into its mechanism. 
The air end of the New York duplex air pumps, with 
the exception of No. 6 and No. 5 contains six air 
valves. Two of these are ordinary receiving valves, 
two are intermediate valves, and two are ordmary 
discharge valves. On No. i and No. 2 pumps the 
receiving and intermediate valves are located between 
the two cylinders, as shown in the preceding cuts — 
figures 239, 240, etc. — and the two discharge valves 
are located on the left side of the high-pressure air 
cylinder, above and below the connection leading 
to the main reservoir. On No. 6 and No. 5 the air 
valves are arranged somewhat different, as will be 
explained farther on. These valves are eight in 
number instead of six, as in the other sizes of pumps. 
The intermediate valves are so designated, because 
of the fact that the low-pressure cylinder discharges 
its air into the high-pressure cylinder through these 
valves, and they are therefore intermediate between 
the low and high-pressure cylinders. The action of 
the air valves in the No. i and No. 2 pump is as 
follows: When the low-pressure piston starts on its 
up stroke a partial vacuum is created underneath it, 
and the atmospheric pressure forces the bottom 
receiving valve (marked 2 DP 9, Fig. 239) off its seat 
and allows the air to rush in and fill the low-pressure 
cylinder underneath the piston, and as this piston doei 
not move again to start on its down stroke until the 
high-pressure piston completes its up stroke, it is 



58o 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



Of><t 




2 DP 
2 






Figure 242 



New York Duplex Air Pump 
down stroke, low-pressure piston 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



581 



-AUTOMATIC OIL CUP 




1 PIPE 
FfiO^ 

eoiLERi: 



2 OP 56, 
2 DP 55' 
2 DP 1 
2 OP IS 



□RAIN COCK 

Figure 243 

New York Duplex Air Pump 

bown stroke. high-pressure piston 



1 OP 7 

2 OPS 



582 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

plain to be seen that when the high-pi'essure piston 
does move on its up stroke and thus create a partial 
vacuum in the high-pressure cylinder both the receiv- 
ing valve and the intermediate valve on the bottom 
of this cylinder are forced off their seats by atmos- 
pheric pressure, and the air rushes in and fills the 
cylinder. The receiving valve for the high-pressure 
cylinder is marked 2 DP 11, Fig. 239. Both cylinders 
are now filled with air at atmospheric pressure, with 
the receiving valves on their seats, and the low-pressure 
piston ready to start on its down stroke. As it 
moves down the lower intermediate valve 2 DP 11 
is forced from its seat, thus permitting the com- 
pressed air in the low-pressure cylinder D to pass into 
the high-pressure cylinder C, which was previously 
charged with air at atmospheric pressure. By the 
time the piston in cylinder D completes its down 
stroke, cylinder C will contain three measures of air, 
for the reason that the volume of cylinder D is twice 
that of cylinder C. While the low-pressure piston is 
moving down, the top receiving valve 2 DP 9 is 
forced from its seat by the pressure of the atmosphere, 
thus permitting the air to pass in and fill cylinder D 
above the piston. When the high-pressure piston 
moves on its down stroke, a partial vacuum is 
created in cylinder C, the atmospheric pressure forces 
the top receiving valve on that cylinder, and the top 
intermediate valve 2 DP 11, both from their seats, 
and by the time the high-pressure piston has com- 
pleted its down stroke, cylinder C is filled with air at 
atmospheric pressure, as is cylinder D also, the pres- 
sure in the two cylinders being equalized. The low- 
pressure piston now begins its up stroke, and as it 
moves up the air on the top side of it is compressed, 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 583 

the top receiving valve is closed and held to its seat, 
and the top intermediate valve is forced from its seat, 
permitting the compressed air to pass into the high- 
pressure cylinder C, as shown in Fig. 240. Upon the 
completion of the up stroke of the low-pressure 
piston the high-pressure cylinder is filled with three 
volumes of air above its piston, and as this piston 
moves on its up stroke, it compresses the air above 
it, the intermediate and top receiving valves being 
closed, and the air under pressure is discharged into 
the main reservoir through the top discharge valve. 
From this description it will be seen this pump is not 
only a duplex pump but a compound pump. Referring 
to Figure 244 the plan view of a No. 5 duplex air 
pump shows two air inlets, the one on the right hand 
side being for the high-pressure cylinder, and the one 
on the left hand side supplies the low-pressure cylin- 
der. The intermediate valves on the No. 5 and No. 
6 pumps are located at the same points as on the No. 
I and No. 2 pumps, but the No. 5 and No. 6 pumps 
have a separate set of receiving valves as shown in 
Fig. 244. 

The general instructions with reference to oiling, 
speed, drainage, etc., apph^ to the New York pumps 
the same as they do to the Westinghouse pumps. 
Figs. 239 to 243 show the automatic oil cup with which 
these pumps are equipped. 

The Westinghouse automatic oil cup consists of a 
brass body, in the main chamber of which the oil is 
contained, and extending through this chamber is a 
regulating valve, the end of which is pointed, so that 
if it is desired to increase or diminish the flow of oil 
the pin valve may be moved up or down by means of 
a regulating nut, and kept in position by a small lock 



584 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



nut. In the body of the cup, below the pin valve, 
there is a ball valve, and the operation of this auto- 
matic oil cup is as follows: As there is a small port 



16^ 



3 




(6) 
Plan View. 



Figure 244 
No. 5. Duplex Air Pump 



in the cap nut, atmospheric pressure is always ad- 
mitted and present on the surface of the oil in the 
main oil chamber, consequently, when' the pump 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 585 

piston moves down, the partial vacuum in the pump 
cylinder causes the ball valve to leave its seat, and 
the oil which has previously passed from the main 
oil chamber around the point of the regulating valve 
into the passage controlled by the ball valve is drawn 
into the pump cylinder in the form of a fine spray. 
When the piston makes its up stroke the compressed 
air holds the ball valve to its seat, thereby preventing 
the oil from being blown out of the oil cup chamber. 
This refers to the No. i oil cup. The No. 2 Westing- 
house oil cup consists of a brass body having a cham- 
ber in which the oil is contained, and instead oi 
having a ball valve, and a regulating valve, there is a 
small check valve, to which is attached a needle rod 
of very small diameter, and which extends up through 
a very small opening into the bottom of the oil 
chamber. On the under side of the check valve there 
is a spring, and the operation of the No. 2 automatic 
oil cup is as follows: As the pump piston moves 
down, the partial vacuum in the pump cylinder causes 
the check valve to be unseated, thereby allowing the 
oil to be drawn from the oil cup into the pump cylin- 
der. The up stroke of the piston causes the check 
valve to be held to its seat, thus preventing the oil 
from being blown out of the cup. In the bodies of 
both kinds of cups there are suitable heating cham- 
bers for the purpose of allowing the warm compressed 
air to surround the oil chamber, thereby keeping the 
oil in a liquid state. 

The New York automatic oil cup is made in two 
styles, A and B. 

Style A consists of a brass body, in which there is 
an oil chamber, and in the center of the body there 
is a regulating valve that can be moved up or down 



586 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

for the purpose of increasing or decreasing the 
amount of oil to be fed to the pump. 

The operation of this cup is as follows: When the 
piston in the air cylinder moves on its up stroke, com- 
pressed air is forced through the oil to the top of the 
oil chamber and is stored there above the oil. When 
the piston has completed its up stroke and is moving 
on the down stroke, the partial vacuum created above 
it, combined with the compressed air on toj) of the 
oil, causes a small portion of the oil to be drawn into 
the air cylinder of the pump and sprayed around on 
the walls. 

The New York style B automatic oil cup has no 
adjustable feed, but has instead a very small port 
through the body of the oil cup, which permits a 
small amount of oil to be drawn into the air cylinder 
each time the piston makes a down stroke. 

New York Pump Governor. The principle of the New 
York Pump governor is similar to that of the Westing- 
house, as is also its operation. There is a slight 
difference in the construction of the two governors, 
but not enough to make it necessary to re-describe the 
entire governor here. It has a diaphragm, regulating 
spring, and a regulating nut, as has the Westinghouse 
pump, but instead of having a diaphragm pin valve 
like the Westinghouse, the diaphragm valve in the New 
York pump governor closes the port leading from the 
diaphragm chamber to the steam piston. Another 
difference is that there is no spring under the steam 
piston, as in the Westinghouse, so that the steam 
valve and the steam valve piston are forced .up by 
steam pressure alone, whereas with the Westinghouse 
both steam and spring are utilized to force the steam- 
valve piston up. There is an outlet port from the 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



587 



steam piston chamber for the purpose of allowing any 
back pressure to escape to the atmosphere, which is 
the same as in the Westinghouse. This vent port pre- 




Figure 245 

Style C. New York Pump Governor, Steam Valve Open 

vents the pressure from accumulating under the steam 
piston. If this pressure were not allowed to escape, 
the air pressure on top would not be able to force the 



S88 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



steam valve to its seat and shut off the pump, whereas, 
when steam is operating against the steam valve alone, 
it requires only about one third as much air pressure 



T' 



"■^ 



T Copp er Pipe. 
T Air Connection 



1 DP 58 

PG 38, 

r DP 59. 



li 



I Pipe 

to Steam 

Valves 




Figure 246 
Style C. New York Pump Governor, Steam Valve Closed 

on the large area of the top of the piston to overcome 
the steam pressure, and force the steam valve dow^ 
Figure 245 shows style C of the New Vo\k 4,^1.1^ 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



589 



governor, with the steam valve open, and Fig. 246 
shows this same style C governor with the steam valve 
closed. The old style A New York governor requires 



(To Boiler 




Pump 



Style A. 



Figure 247 
New York Air Pump Governor 



a key with which to set the regulating spring, and is 
shown in Fig. 247. The duplex pump governor is 
simply a governor with one steam portion, but having 
two air portions. A duplex governor consists of one 



590 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

steam valve body, steam valve, steam valve piston, 
and a Siamese fitting to which is attached two pressure 
tops, or diaphragm valve portions. 

The New York Engineer's Brake. The student of 
air brakes who possesses a previous knowledge of 



SUPPLEMENTARY F^E^ER VQIR 




Figure 248 

General Arrangement of Brake Valve, Supplementary 
Reservoir, Air Gauge, Pump Governor and Main Reservoir 

the Westinghouse engineer's brake valve should 
remember when studying the engineer's brake 
valve of the New York duplex system that, when' 
service application is made with the New York 
engineer's brake valve, the first escape of air is 
direct from the trainpipe, but that the port opening 
from the trainpipe to the atmosphere is much smaller 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 591 

in making a service application than it is when mak- 
ing an emergency application. With the Westing- 
house valve the first escape of air is from off the top of 
the equalizing discharge valve when a service appli- 
cation is made. Another important feature in connec- 
tion with the New York engineer's brake valve is that 
the service position is divided up into five notches, the 
position or notch in which to place the handle in 
beginning a service application depending upon the 
size of the train, as, for instance, if a train of four cars 
or less is being handled the application should be 
commenced by placing the handle of the valve in the 
first notch, because of the fact that the service port 
gradually becomes wider as the handle is moved 
over the quadrant, and with a short train of four cars 
or less the trainpipe volume is so small that if the 
handle were moved past the first notch it is very 
likely to produce an emergency application, owing 
to the fact that the trainpipe pressure would be re- 
duced too suddenly. The essential parts of the New 
York Engineer's Brake Valve are, the valve body proper, 
amain slide Valve, which is connected by a link to a 
shaft operated by a handle, in which there is a lock 
bolt for the purpose of engaging the notches in the 
quadrant. Under the main slide valve there is a. 
small cut-off slide valve, which is controlled by an 
arm connected to a graduating piston. This graduat- 
ing piston contains a small ball valve for the purpose 
of admitting air into chamber D, or supplementary 
reservoir, and a ball-faced vent valve fastened to the 
end of the equalizing piston for the purpose of 
closing port O (see Fig. 249). 

The cut, Fig. 248, showing the duplex gauge, illus- 
trates how the single governor, supplementary reser- 



S92 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



voir, main reservoir, and trainpipe are connected to the 
brake valve, making in all six pipe connections. Fig. 
249 shows the handle in full release position. In the 




EV-102A 



Figure 249 
New York Engineer's Brake Valve, Release Position 

top right-hand corner is a sectional view of the excess 
pressure valve, while in the top left-hand corner is a 
view of the main slide valve, and valve seat. In 



TENDER 



PLATE 35 

(Locomotive Bngrineerlng) 



ENGINE 




Driver 8rak« 
Auxiliary Reservoir 



t:::^" 



l-J-'tSuToutCock 



GENERAL ARRANGEMENT AND METHOD OF PIPING THE NEW YORK COMBINED AUTOMATIC AND STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE. 




AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



593 



studying this view of the face of the main slide valve, 
it should be remembered that it is equivalent to look- 
ing directly through the top of the valve, and that 




Train Pipe Main Reservoir 

Figure 250 
New York Engineer's Brake Valve, Running Position 

the slanting lines represent the face of the main slide 
valve, while the dotted horizontal lines represent the 
slide valve seat. It will be noticed that port K in 
the main slide valve extends across nearly the whole 



594 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

width of the valve, as does also the cavity marked 




Train Pipe Main Reservoir 

Figure 251 
New York Engineer's Brake Valve, Lap Position 

M, and that the ports F and G are directly on the cen- 
ter line, while port J and cavity P are on the side, 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 595 

therefore, when looking at the main slide valve sec* 
tionalized, it should be remembered that it is a vie\^ 
of the valve as it would appear if cut half in two. 
The port marked A in the valve seat is the opening 
that leads from chamber B by the end of main slide 
valve into chamber A, and this port A is controlled 
by the face of the main slide valve. In figure 249 
it will be noticed that port F is closed by the main 
valve seat, whereas in the diagram of running position 
port F is closed by the small cut-off valve. The 
position of the cut-off valve is indicated by dotted 
lines in the view illustrating the face of the main 
valve. The large exhaust cavity C is also indicated 
by dotted lines in the plan view of the main slide 
valve seat. The main slide vah^e has four cavities 
which are designated as M, F-G, and K. The ports 
in the main slide valve are F, G, J, K and N. The 
ports in the main valve seat are designated by the 
letters E, A, C and O. As this great number of ports 
is liable to be somewhat confusing to the student, it 
might be well at this point to explain that, when the 
main slide valve is moved to full release position, 
main reservoir air passes from chamber B, by the end 
of the slide valve directly through the large port A 
into chamber A, and from thence straight into the 
trainpipe. When the handle of the valve is in run- 
ning position, main reservoir pressure passes through 
port E in the slide valve seat, and cavity M in the 
slide valve, into port A and thence to the trainpipe.. 
While the air is passing from chamber B through 
cavity M it is also passing through chamber E into- 
the pump governor pipe. In lap position, ports J 
and A in the slide valve are closed by the main slide 
valve, and exhaust port F is kept closed by the smalJ 



$96 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



cut-off valve, as shown in Fig. 251. In service grad- 
uating position, Fig. 252, ports E and A are closed 
by the main slide valve, but port F is moved 



^ A F J C G K 




Train Pipo Main R«8«rvoir 

Figure 252 

New York Engineer's Brake Valve, Service Graduatin* 
Position 

back of the cut-off valve so that, while main 
reservoir pressure is shut off, trainpipe pressure can 
pass up through port F in the main slide valve 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 59 j 

and out through port G into the main exhaust 
cavity C. 

The handle being in service graduating position, 
when trainpipe pressure has exhausted below atmos- 
pheric pressure in the supplementary reservoir or 
chamber D, the equalizing piston is then forced 
forward by the pressure in chamber D. This action 
causes the cut-off valve to move over and close 
exhaust port F. With the handle in service gradu- 
ating position the main slide valve closes the top 
end of port O, because, if it did not, when the equal- 
izing piston moved forward, the unseating of the ball- 
faced check valve would permit all the air from the 
supplementary reservoir to escape, and thereby pre- 
vent the automatic lapping of the brake valve. Should 
the handle be moved to another service graduating 
notch, just as soon as the trainpipe pressure had 
exhausted below what was left in the supplementary 
reservoir, the equalizing piston would again mo\re 
forward and cause the cut-off valve to again lap ex- 
haust port F. This action would continue in each 
of the graduating notches, but when the handle is 
moved to emergency position, the valve does not 
automatically lap itself, for the reason that the equal- 
izing piston has then made its full stroke. When 
the handle is in emergency position, Fig. 254, the 
large port in the main slide valve, marked J, is con- 
nected to the large exhaust port, marked K, which 
causes the trainpipe pressure to pass out through ex- 
haust passage C and be reduced suddenly, thereby 
causing all the triple valves on the train to assume 
the emergency position. When the handle is 
thrown from emergency, service, or lap position, back 
to full release, the increase in the trainpipe pressure 



598 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



drives the equalizing piston back. This action cau 



ses 



E A F J Q Q K 

J. EV-98 



EV-90 




Tr&in Pipe Main Reservoir 

Figure 253 

New York Engineer's Brake Valve, Automatic Lap Position 

the vent valve i8o, in the end of the piston 104A, to 

close the bottom end of passage O, because in full 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 599 

release, running, or positive lap position, the top end 
of port O is open to exhaust cavity C by way of 
cavitv P in the main slide valve. In order to get a 
clear idea of the purpose of each one of the several 
ports and cavities, the following brief summary of their 
different functions is here given. Port E in the slide 
valve, and cavity M in the main slide valve are pri- 
marily used for the purpose of directing the main 
reservoir pressure through the excess pressure valve 
into the trainpipe. Chamber E supplies trainpipe 
pressure to the pump governor. Ports F and G in the 
main slide valve are trainpipe exhaust ports, for the 
purpose of making a service application of the brakes. 
Ports J and K are primarily used for the purpose of 
making an emergency application in connection with 
exhaust port C. Passage C is the main exhaust 
port of the brake valve. Cavity P is for the purpose 
of connecting port O in the main valve seat with the 
exhaust passage C. 

Port N , in the main valve is for the purpose of 
increasing the area of port A when the handle is in 
full release position, thereby allowing a full and free 
passage from main reservoir into the trainpipe when 
releasing the brakes. 

Passage O begins in the cap of the valve body, 102 
A, and passes through the wall of the cover, 115A, 
of the brake valve, when it sinks into the valve body, 
loiA, and ends up in the main slide valve seat, under 
the main slide valve. 

Passage H, which leads from chamber D, passes 
through the body of the brake valve to the pipe con- 
nection with the supplementary reservoir. A small 
ball valve, 184, in the equalizing piston is for the pur- 
pose of supplying air to the supplementary reservoir, 



6oo 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



so that the trainpipe pressure and chamber D pressure 
may equalize when the brake valve is in either running 



F E J A G C rK 




Train Pipe Main Retenroil^ 

Figure 254 
New York Engineer's Brake Valve, Emergency Position 

or release position. The vent valve in the end of the 
equalizing piston is for the purpose of controlling the 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 6oi 

bottom end of passage O. The purpose of passage 
and port O is to allow the pressure in chamber D to 
escape to the atmosphere when the equalizing piston 
is forced back to its normal position. The function 
of the excess pressure valve, 97, is to maintain a 
given pressure in the trainpipe when the handle of 
the brake valve is in running position. 

The functions of the several notches on the quadrant 
are as follows: When the handle is in the extreme 
forward position, main reservoir pressure is fed 
directly into the trainpipe, the first notch, which is 
also indicated by a small pin on the side of the 
quadrant, is running position, and in this position 
pressure from the main reservoir is fed into the train- 
pipe through an indirect passage, or by way of the 
excess pressure valve. The next notch on the quad 
rant is known as positive lap position, and when the 
handle is in this position, all ports in the brake valve 
are closed between the main reservoir and trainpipe, 
and between the trainpipe and the atmosphere, and in 
this position the pressure from the trainpipe and pump 
governor is also shut off, and it is because of this fact 
that a duplex pump governor is necessary with the 
New York brake valve. The next notch after positive 
lap is the first service graduating notch, and when the 
handle is in this position the brake valve will allow 
about five pounds of trainpipe pressure to exhaust, 
when it will automatically lap itself. The second 
graduating notch will allow about eight pounds of 
trainpipe pressure to exhaust, when the valve will 
automatically lap itself. The next notch will cause 
an exhaust from the trainpipe of eleven pounds pres- 
sure. The fourth notch causes a sixteen-pound 
reduction, and the fifth notch is full service position 



6o2 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



causing a reduction in trainpipe pressure of twenty- 
three pounds. When the handle is placed in any one 
of the service graduating positions, the brake valve 
will automatically lap itself, but when the handle is 
placed in the emergency position, then the automatic 
lap feature is eliminated. When the valve automati- 
cally laps itself, the equalizing piston moves the cut- 
off so that it covers port F, but when the handle of 




n rr 

Figure 255 
Showing Port O ix Maix Slide Valve Seat 

FACE OF SLIDE VALVE 
M 




P J 

Figure 255 a 

the valve is moved to positive lap position, the main 
valve slide places port F over the cut-off valve. 

Should the handle be placed in the five-pound 
notch, and while it was in this position trainpipe leak- 
ages should cause the trainpipe pressure to be reduced 
to sixty pounds or less (when working with a seventy- 
pound standard) then, when the handle was moved 
to the eight-pound notch, there would be no exhaust 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 603 

from the trainpipe, for the reason that the trainpipe 
leakages would cause the pressure in chamber D to 
push the equalizing piston forward, and cause the 
cut-off valve to keep exhaust port F closed. This is a 
splendid feature of the New York brake valve. As 
the automatic lap feature is dependent upon the 
proper movement of the equalizing piston, it will be 
seen at once that, should there be any leakage from 
chamber D, or the supplementary reservoir, it would 
prevent the equalizing piston from moving forward, 
and causing the cut-off val-- to close exhaust port F. 
There are several other things, besides direct leakage 
from chamber D to the atmosphere, which will pre- 
vent the automatic lapping of the valve, and they may 
be enumerated as follows: A leak by the packing 
leather of the equalizing piston will prevent the auto- 
matic lap. Should the face of the main slide valve 
be scratched so that it will not seat properly on the 
cut-off valve, it will prevent the automatic lap. 
Should the ball check valve fail to seat properly, it 
will prevent automatic lap. Should the seat of the 
cut-off valve become scratched so that the valve did 
not seat properly, it would prevent the automatic lap. 
Should the arm connecting the cut-off valve to the 
equalizing piston become bent or disarranged in any 
manner, it would prevent the automatic lap. The two 
cap screws in the cover of the brake valve are for the 
purpose of admitting oil to the main slide valve seat. 
To oil the slide valve seat, release all main reservoir 
pressure, cut out the trainpipe from the brake valve, 
exhaust all air pressure, and remove the cap screws 
from the valve cover, then throw the handle to full 
release position, and drop in just a small quantity of 
good oil onto the valve seat. Then throw the handle 



6o4 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



to emergency position and drop a few drops of oil 
onto that end of the valve seat, and work the handle 
back and forth several times in order to distribute the 
oil. Be careful not to use too much oil, as it is liable 
to gum up the valve. While the air pressure is off, 
unscrew the cap nut of the excess pressure valve, and 

wipe that valve off 
with kerosene, and be 
sure that it is wiped dry 
before replacing the cap 
screws. When adjust- 
ing the regulating 
spring of the excess 
pressure valve, place 
the brake handle in 
running position, and 
allow the air pump to 
raise the pressure until 
the red hand of the 
gauge shows twenty 
pounds before the black 
hand begins to move. 
Should the black hand 
begin to move before 
the red hand reaches 
the twenty -pound 
point, it indicates that 
the graduating spring 
needs to be tightened down, while on the other hand 
if the black hand of the gauge did not begin to move 
until the red hand had passed the twenty-pound 
mark, it w^ould indicate that the graduating spring 
should be loosened up and slacked off slightly. With 
the New York brake valve handle in running position, 




Figure 256 

Cross Section, Showing Passage 

H IN Body, and Passage O 

IN Valve Cover 






,«uifiiBqqA Isr 



■1 



'^1 




AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 605 

the excess pressure is accumulated before the train- 
pipe pressure begins to show on the gauge, whereas 
with the Westinghouse system it is just the opposite, 
as no excess pressure accumulates until after the train- 
pipe is fully charged. The old style A, New York 
brake valve, differs from the present styles, B and 
B-i, in that it does not have the vent valve in the end 
of the equalizing piston, neither does it have the ball 
check valve nor port O in the valve seat. Conse- 
quently the valve will not automatically lap when the 
handle is changed direct from full release position to 
service graduating position. In order to obtain the 
automatic lap feature it is necessary to have the sup- 
plementary reservoir pressure equal to trainpipe pres- 
sure at the beginning of a service application, and with 
the old style A valve, which does not have the ball 
check valve, the only way in which the supplementary 
reservoir can be charged with the necessary pressure 
is by placing the handle in running position. 

The New York plain triple valve is so nearly like the 
Westinghouse plam triple valve that it requires no 
special description here, and the same instructions 
regarding the Westinghouse plain triple will apply to 
the New York plain triple also. 

The New York Quick-Action Triple Valve. In study- 
ing the following illustrations of the New York quick 
action triple valve it should be remembered that the 
valve itself does not have exactly the shape shown 
in Fig. 257, 258, 259 and 260, but those portions of 
the triple which show passage H, port J, vent valve 
137, and check valve 139, are shown in Fig. 261 and 
262. The object had in view in illustrating the valve 
in Ihis manner was to show plainly the relation of 
these ports, passages, and valves, to the other parts of 



Plate 34 

The New York Quick-Action Automatic Air Brake. 

Together with Signal Apparatus. (|,^^ ,^ _ "-"rm'T 






Duplex Air puma 




AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 605 

the excess pressure is accumulated before the train- 
pipe pressure begins to show on the gauge, whereas 
with the Westinghouse system it is just the opposite, 
as no excess pressure accumulates until after the train- 
pipe is fully charged. The old style A, New York 
brake valve, differs from the present styles, B and 
B-i, in that it does not have the vent valve in the end 
of the equalizing piston, neither does it have the ball 
check valve nor port O in the valve seat. Conse- 
quently the valve will not automatically lap when the 
handle is changed direct from full release position to 
service graduating position. In ordei- to obtain the 
automatic lap feature it is necessary to have the sup- 
plementary reservoir pressure equal to trainpipe pres- 
sure at the beginning of a service application, and with 
the old style A valve, which does not have the ball 
check valve,the only way in which the supplementary 
reservoir can be charged with the necessary pressure 
is by placing the handle in running position. 

The New York plain triple valve is so nearly like the 
Westinghouse plam triple valve that it requires no 
special description here, and the same instructions 
regarding the Westinghouse plain triple will apply to 
the New York plain triple also. 

The New York Quick- Action Triple Valve. In study- 
ing the following illustrations of the New York quick 
action triple valve it should be remembered that the 
valve itself does not have exactly the shape shown 
in Fig. 257, 258, 259 and 260, but those portions of 
the triple which show passage H, port J, vent valve 
137, and check valve 139, are shown in Fig. 261 and 
262. The object had in view in illustrating the valve 
in this manner was to show plainly the relation of 
these ports, passages, and valves, to the other parts of 



6o6 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



the triple. The principal operative parts of the New 
York quick-action triple valve are, the main triple 
pi?*.on, 128; the exhaust slide valve, 38; the gradu- 

,J QT 137 



QT 139 



QT 138 



-QT I40 
.QT I4t 




Figure 257 
New York Quick Actiox Triple Valve. Release Positiox 
ating slide valve, 48; the vent piston, 129; the rubber- 
seated vent valve, 131, and spring, 132, the emergency 
piston, 147, with rubber-seated quick-action valve 139, 
and spring, 140. 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



607 



Now return to brake cylinder check valve, 117, and 
spring, 118: It will be noticed that the vent piston, 




Figure 258 
N"ew York Quick Action Triple Valve 

SERVICE application POSITION 

129, has a port, F, which leads through its center into 
chamber G of the main triple piston. This allows 
trainpipe pressure to get between the pistons, thus 



6o8 LOCOMOTIVE- ENGINEERING 

forming a cushion that takes the place of the gradu- 
ating spring used in the Westinghouse triple. 

The passage of the air through the New York quick- 
action triple valve is as follows: Referring to Fig. 
257, trainpipe pressure passes through the strainer, 
fills the cavity back of the rubber-seated vent valve, 
131, thus holding that valve to its seat, and also 
passes through a large opening into the main piston 
chamber, causing the main piston to be forced to 
charging position. This allows the trainpipe pressure 
to pass through feed groove B into the slide valve 
chamber, and on into the auxiliary reservoir. During 
the time this action is taking place, trainpipe air is also 
feeding through port F in the stem of the vent piston 
129, thereby charging chamber G between the pistons. 
When the trainpipe, chamber G, and auxiliary 
reservoir are all equally charged to a pressure of 
seventy pounds the equipment is ready for an appli- 
cation of the brake. Referring to Fig. 258, which shows 
the triple in the service application, it will be seen 
that the main triple piston, 128, has moved back until 
it touches the vent piston, 129, and that it has moved 
this vent piston back far enough so that port F is just 
closed. As the trainpipe pressure is reduced, the 
pressure in chamber G is reduced also, but as it 
reduces slower than the trainpipe pressure, it gradu- 
ates the movement of the main triple piston, so that 
when the main piston has made its full stroke, it 
has not disturbed the rubber-seated vent valve 131, 
but has moved the graduating slide valve 48 to a 
position which opens the supply port from the 
auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylinder, and at the 
same time has moved the exhaust slide valve 138 for- 
ward, and closed the exhaust port from the brake 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



609 



cylinder to the atmosphere. When the main piston 
moves forward it gradually closes port F before ali 
of the pressure in chamber G has exhausted, conse- 



qT 137 



QT 139 




Figure 259 
New York Quick Action Triple Valve, Service Lap Position 

quently when the auxiliary pressure has reduced to a 
degree slightly less than trainpipe pressure, the air 
that is confined in chamber G expands and forces the 



6io 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



main piston back a slight distance. This causes the 
graduating slide valve to close the port from the auxil- 
iary reservoir to the brake cylinder without disturbing 

J 

QT t37 




Figure 260 
New York Quick Action Triple Valve, Emergency Position 

the exhaust slide valve that controls the exhaust 
port from the brake cylinder to the atmosphere. The 
triple valve is now in lap position, as shown in Fig. 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



6ii 



259. The emergency action cf this valve, shown in 
Fig-. 260, is brought about in the following manner: 
The air cushion in chamber G cannot be reduced 
through port F as quickly as the trainpipe pressure is 
reduced, and, consequently, when a sudden reduction 



1 1 1/2-- 



QT135 
QT131 
QT71. 
QT20 



QT28- 
QT30 
QT31 
QT29 




Figure 261 
Style F. New York Quick Action Triple Valve 

is caused in the trainpipe pressure, it causes the auxil- 
iary pressure to drive the main piston back so quickly 
that port F is closed before chamber G can empty 
itself, and with an air cushion between the two 
pistons, the stem of the vent piston strikes the rubber 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



-7-=/, 



3/3 

Exhaust 



seated vent valve and drives it trom its seat. This 
allows trainpipe pressure to pass into passage H, and 
thereby forces the emergency piston 137 forward, 
which action not only opens port J to the atmosphere 

for the purpose 
of still further 
reducing the 
trainpipe pres- 
sure, but it 
also unseats 
the rubber- 
seated emer- 
gency valve 
139. This al- 
lows the aux- 
iliary pressure 
QT 141 to flow from 



ar 136 




QT 138 chamber K by 
^■'^'^ the rubber- 
seated valve 
into chamber 
L and unseat 
the non-return 
check valve 
117, thereby 
causing the 
auxiliary reser- 
V o i r pressure 
to quickly 
equalize with the brake cylinder pressure. When 
the trainpipe pressure has reduced below the aux- 
iliary reservoir pressure, the emergency valve 139 
is forced to its seat, and the brake cylinder 
pressure equalizes with the pressure in chamber L, 



Style F. 



Figure 262 
New York Qutck Action 
Triple Valve 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



6r 



causing the non-return check valve to go to its seat, 
and it is held there both by the brake cylinder pressure 
and the spring Ii8. 

The New York Combined Automatic and Straight Air 
Brake Valve. This valve performs the same functions 
as the Westinghouse, that is, it applies the engine and 



To Brak« Cylinder 
%" Pipe. 



T^Main Reservoir 
%" Pipe. 




-svio 

EV2EI 



Figure 263 
New York Straight Air Engineer's Brake Valve 

tender brakes independent of the triple valve when 
the triple is in release position. 

The New York straight air equipment consists of a 
straight air brake valve, a reducing valve, a double 
check valve, a brake cylinder guauge, and a safety 
valve on the brake cylinder, the same as is used in 



014 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

xhe Westinghouse system, but the New York straight 
air valve is modeled after their engineer's automatic 
brake valve, as it will be seen by reference to the cut. 
Fig. 263, illustrating the straight air valve, that the 
essential parts of this valve (aside from the case), are 
a sli'de valve operated by a handle working over a 
quadrant, two oil plugs for the purpose of oiling the 
slide valve seat, two pipe connections and one 
exhaust. 

One pipe connection admits main reservoir pressure 
into the brake valve, and the other pipe connection 
allows the pressure to pass into the brake cylinder. 
There are four position for the New York straight 
airbrake valve, viz.: release, lap, service and emer- 
gency. 

Referring to Fig. 263, the handle is in full release 
position, and brake cylinder pressure can pass under 
the slide valve, and out at the exhaust opening. 
Should the handle be moved to lap position, the 
slide valve will close the passage leading to the brake 
cylinder, thus preventing main reservoir pressure from 
getting into the cylinder, and also preventing the 
cylinder pressure from escaping to the atmosphere. 
Now, should the handle be moved to the next or serv- 
ice position the slide valve will be moved still farther 
back, thereby creating a small opening to the brake 
cylinder, and allowing the engine brakes to be set 
gradually, but should the handle be thrown to 
emergency position, the slide valve will be moved to 
such a position that the passage to the brake cylinder 
is wide open, thus allowing a quick and free rush of air 
into the cylinders. Between the main reservoir and 
the straight air brake valve there is a reducing valve. 
Fig. 264, for the purpose of keeping the main reservoir 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 



6iS 



pressure down to a predetermined standard which is 
usually forty-five pounds. 

This straight air reducing valve is connected at 
one end to the main reservoir, and at the other end to 
the straight air brake valve, and as the regulating 



S.A. 30 



S.A. 34 



S.A. 20 



S.A. 29 




E.V>254 



Figure 264 
New York Straight Air Brake Pressure Reducing Valve 

spring is supposed to be adjusted to forty-five pounds, 
it will readily be seen b}^ reference to Fig. 264, that 
the force of the spring will drive the diaphragm down 
so that it will unseat the check valve 26. Therefore, 
when no air is in the brake cylinder, the main reser- 
voir pressure can pass by the check vah^e, and out 



6i6 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



through the pipe connection leading to the straight air 
brake valve, and when the pressure under the dia- 
phragm becomes a fraction greater than that for 
which the regulating spring 20 is adjusted, the dia- 
phragm will be moved up, thereby allowing the check 
valve to reseat and shut off 
the main reservoir pressure, 
but should the brake cylinder 
leathers leak, and thus in a 
short time bring the pressure 
down below the tension of the 
graduating spring, the dia- 
phragm will be forced down 
and again unseat the check 
valve to admit main air pres- 
sure. This action enables the 
engineer to place the straight 
air brake valve in service posi- 
tion, and do any repair work 
under his engine with perfect 
safety, for the reason that as 
long as the air pump works, 
the straight air brake valve will 
automatically su p p 1 y main 
reservoir pressure to the brake 
cylinders, and thus keep the 
engine from moving. One of 




R.V-107 



^^ ^ PIPE THREAD 



Figure 265 

New York Safety ^'alve 

With Hand Release 



the greatest benefits that the 



straight air brake valve confers in road service is, that it 
enables the engineer to set the engine brakes inde- 
pendently of the train brakes, so that in slowing 
down, or in making a stop, he can keep the train 
bunched, and thereby prevent a break-in-two. The 
safety valve, Fig. 265, on the brake cylinders, is for 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES ' 617 

the purpose of taking care of any leakage in the reduc- 
ing valve. Should the check valve in the reducing 
valve leak, the main ieservoir pressure would equalize 
with the brake cylinder pressure, and in order to 
prevent this a safety valve is placed on the brake 
cylinder, to allow any extra pressure that might 
accumulate in the cylinder to automatically blow 
out. 

The diagram, Plate 35, which illustrates the general 
arrangement and method of piping the New York com- 
bined automatic and straight air brake will clearly 
show the relative positions of the several parts. It 
will be noticed that in the pipe that leads to the brake 
cylinders there is a safety valve. In this same pipe 
there is also a double check valve, which is the same 
as is used in the Westinghouse system. From the 
brake pipe there is shown in dotted lines another pipe, 
on the end of which there is a cock. This cock is for 
the purpose of releasing the air from the brake cylin- 
ders when descending heavy grades, or, in case of a 
bursted hose, thereby saving the engine tires from 
being skidded or loosened. By reference to the dia- 
gram it will be seen that on the tender there is also a 
safety valve, a double check valve, and the same 
line of pipe in dotted lines has a release cock on the 
end of it, similar to the engine equipment. One of 
these release cocks is located in the cab, and the 
other one is placed in the gangway of the tender. 
The descending of long heavy grades makes it abso- 
lutely necessary to have some means by which the en- 
gine and tender brake cylinder pressures can be reduced 
without having to release the train brakes. It is also 
a very important matter to be able to release the en- 
gine and tender brakes when a hose bursts, provided 



6i8 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

jt is desired to save the engine tires from becoming 
loosened or flattened 

Questions 

752. What is the principal difference between the 
Westinghouse system of air brakes and the New York 
system? 

753. What type of air pump is employed in the 
New York system? 

754. What is a, duplex air pump? 

755. Are the two air'cylinders of the same internal 
diameter? 

756. Explain the action of the air end of a duplex 
air pump. 

757. Is it proper to consider it a coftipound pump? 

758. How many sizes of New York duplex air pumps 
are being made? 

759. How are the different sizes designated? 

760. What are the dimensions of the No. I pump? 

761. What are the dimensions of the No. 2 pump? 

762. What are the dimensions of the No. 6 pump? 

763. What are the dimensions of the No. 5 pump? 

764. Explain the action of the New York duplex 
air pump. 

765. How is the reversing valve for each piston con- 
trolled? 

766. In what respect does the reversing mechanism 
of the New York air pump resemble the Westing- 
house? 

767. Explain in a simple manner the operation of 
the reversing mechanism of the New York duplex air 
pump. 

768. What moves the reversing rod that extends 
up in the hollow steam piston rod? 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 619 

769. What is the function of the slide valve in this 
reversing mechanism? 

770. Are there any packing rings on the reversing 
valve? 

771. What precautions should be observed regarding 
oil in the slide valve chamber of this pump? 

772. What is the result if too much oil is allowed to 
get into the slide valve chamber? 

773. What should be done with the drain pipe at 
the bottom of the steam end? 

774. With the exception of Nos. 6 and 5, how many 
valves are in the air end? 

775. What are the functions of these valves? 

776. How are these valves located on the Nos. i 
and 2 pumps? 

']"]']. How many air valves are there in the No. 6 
and No. 5 pumps? 

778. Why are the intermediate valves so designated? 

779. Describe the action of the air valves in the 
No. I and No. 2 pumps. 

780. In starting the pump which piston starts first? 

781. After both pistons have completed the first 
stroke what is the pressure of air in the cylinders? 

782. As the low-pressure piston moves on the return 
stroke, what becomes of the air ahead of it contained 
in the low-pressure cylinder? 

783. What is the ratio of the volume of the high and 
low-pressure cylinders? 

784. When the low pressure piston has completed 
the return stroke how many volumes of air will the 
high-pressure cylinder contain? 

785. As the high pressure piston moves on the return 
stroke what becomes of the air ahead of it in the high- 
pressure cylinder? 



->20 LOCOMOTIVE ENGIXEERIXG 

yS6. In addition to being a duplex pump what other 
type of pump is the New York air pump? 

/S/. Is there an air inlet for each air cylinder? 

788. Give a short description of the No. i auto- 
matic oil cup for Westinghouse air pumps. 

789. Describe the action of this cup, 

790. How is the No. 2 Westinghouse oil cup con- 
structed ? 

791. Describe its operation. 

792. How is the oil contained in these cups kept in 
a liquid state in cold weather? 

793. In how man}' styles is the New York automatic 
oil cup made ? 

794. Describe Style "A." 

795. How does this cup operate to feed the oil into 
the cylinder? 

796. Describe style "B" cup and the method by 
which it introduces oil into the c\'linder. 

797. In what respects does the New York air pump 
governor resemble the Westinghouse? 

798. In what respects do the two pumps differ? 

799. How does the back pressure steam escape from 
the steam piston chamber? 

800. If this pressure were not allov/ed to escape 
what would be the result? 

801. How is the regulating spring set in the old 
st}-le "A" New York governor? 

802. Of what parts does a duplex pump governor 
consist? 

803. In studying the New York engineer's brake 
valve what should be remembered regarding the first 
escapes of air when a service application is made? 

804. In making a service application with the West- 
inghouse valve where does the air first escape from? 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 621 

805. How many positions are there for the handle 
tA the New York engineer's brake valve in making 
3. service application of the brakes? 

806. With a Hght train of four cars or less how should 
the application be commenced? 

807. What would be the probable result if the 
handle were moved past the first notch with a light 
train? 

808. What are the essential parts of the New York 
engineer's brake valve? 

809. How many and what are the pipe connections 
to the engineer's brake valve? 

810. In what position is the handle shown in Fig. 

249? 

811. What should be remembered in studying this 
view of the face of the main slide valve? 

812. What is the function of port "A" in the valve 
seat? 

813. What controls port"A"? 

814. When the valve is in full release position, as 
in Fig. 249, how is port "F" closed? 

815. When the valve is in running position what 
closes port "F"? 

816. How many cavities has the main slide valve? 

817. How many parts are there in the main slide 
valve ? 

818. How many parts are there in the main valve 
ccat? 

819. When the main slide valve is moved to full 
release position what is the course of main reservoir air? 

820. Describe the route of main reservoir air when 
the handle is in running position? 

821. How does the air get into the pump governoi 
pipe? 



622 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

822. What ports are closed in lap position, Fig. 251? 

823. Describe the condition of the ports and air 
passages when the valve is in service graduating posi- 
tion, Fig. 252. 

824. With the valve in service graduating position 
what function does the main slide valve perform? 

1 825. What would be the result if the top end of port 
"O" were not thus closed? 

826. If the handle be now moved to another service 
graduating position what will take place? 

827. Does this action continue in each of the service 
graduating notches? 

828. Does the valve automatically lap itself when the 
handle is thrown to emergency position? 

829. Why not? 

,830. When the handle is in emergency position what 
are the port connections? 

831. What effect does this have on the triple valves 
in the train ? 

832. When the handle is thrown from emergency 
position or service or lap position back to full release 
how is the equalizing piston affected? 

833. How does this action affect the vent valve 180 
in the end of the piston 104? 

834. Why is this? 

835. Whatisthe primary purpose of port "E" in the 
slide valve and cavity in the main slide valve? 

836. What is the function of chamber "E"? 

837. What are ports "F" and "G" in the main slide 
valve for? 

838. What are ports "J" ^^^ "K" primarily used 
for? 

839. What is the function of passage "C"? 

840. For what purpose is cavity "P"? 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 623 

841. What is port "N" in the main valve for? 

842. Describe the route of passage "O. " 

843. Describe the route of passage "H." 

844. What is the function of the small ball valve 
184 in the equalizing piston? 

845. What is the purpose of the vent valve in the 
end of the equalizing piston? 

846. What is the purpose of port "O"? 

847. What is the function of the excess pressure 
valve 97? When the handle is in extreme forward 
position how does the air get into the trainpipe? How 
is the first notch indicated and what position is 
this? 

848. With the handle in running position how is 
main reservoir pressure fed into the trainpipe? 

849. "What position is the next notch on the 
quadrant? 

850. What are the conditions when the handle is 
in this position? 

851. Why is a duplex pump governor a necessity 
with the New York air brake? 

852. What position is the next notch after positive 
lap position? 

853. How many pounds of trainpipe pressure is 
allowed to exhaust with the handle in this position? 

854. With the handle at the fifth notch or full ser- 
vice position, how many pounds reduction is there in 
trainpipe pressure? 

855. If while the handle is in the five-pound notch, 
leakages should occur in the trainpipe causing the 
pressure to be reduced to sixty pounds or less, what 
would be the result if the handle were moved to the 
eight-pound notch? 

856. What can be said of this feature? 



624 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

857. Upon what is the automatic lap feature depend- 
ent? 

858. What conditions would tend to prevent the 
equalizing piston from moving forward and causing 
the valve to lap? 

859. Mention other causes that would prevent the 
automatic lap? 

860. What are the two cap screws in the cover of the 
brake valve for? 

861. How is the slide valve oiled? 

862. What should be done with the excess pressure 
valve when the air pressure is off? 

863. How is the regulating spring of the excess 
pressure valve regulated ? 

864. If the black hand of the gauge begins to move 
before the red hand reaches the twenty-pound point 
what is indicated? 

865. If the black hand does not mo^^e until the red 
hand has passed the twenty-pound mark, what should 
be done ? 

866. With the handle in the second graduating notch 
how many pounds of trainpipe pressure will exhaust 
before the valve will automatically lap? 

867. How many pounds will be exhausted with the 
handle in the third notch? 

868. Hov/ many pounds reduction in trainpipe pres- 
sure will result with the handle in the fourth notch? 

869. What are the principal operating parts of the 
New York quick-action triple valve ? 

870 How does trainpipe pressure get between the 
pistons ? 

871. What is the function of this air cushion? 

872. Describe the passage of the air through the 
New York quick action triple valve. 



AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKES 625 

873. What must be the conditions before the equip- 
ment is ready for an application of the brakes? 

874. How is the movement of the main triple piston 
graduated ? 

875. What causes the non-return check valve to go 
to its seat and stay there? 

876. What are the functions of the New York com- 
bined automatic and straight air brake valve? 

877. What factors go to make up the New York 
straight air equipment? 

878. What is the difference between the New York 
brake valve, and the Westinghouse brake valve as 
regards excess pressure? 

879. W^hat is the difference between the old style A 
New York brake valve and the present styles B and 
B-i? 

880. What are the conditions when the handle is 
thrown into emergency position? 

881. Where is the reducing valve located? 

882. How is the supply port from the auxiliary 
reservoir to the brake cylinder opened ? 

883. How is the exhaust port from the brake 
cylinder to the atmosphere closed ? 

884. How is the port from the auxiliary reservoir to 
the brake cylinder closed? 

885. How is the emergency action of this valve 
brought about? 

886. How is auxiliary pressure caused to equalize 
with brake cylinder pressure ? 

887. What advantage does this action afford to the 
engineer ? 

888. Why are there two pipe connections ? 

889. How many positions are there for the New York 
straight air brake valve ? 



626 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

890. Name these positions. 

891. With the handle in full release position, what 
occurs ? 

892. What are the conditions with the handle in lap 
position? 

893. If now the handle be moved to the next or 
service position, what will occur? 

894. What is the purpose of the reducing valve? 

895. How is the straight air reducing valve con- 
nected? 

896. To what pressure is the regulating spring ad- 
justed ? 

897. When there is no air pressure in the brake 
cylinder what is the route of the main reservoir pres- 
sure? 

898. When the pressure under the diaphragm be- 
comes slightly greater than the tension of the regu- 
lating spring what will take place? 

899. What would be the consequence if the brake 
cylinder leathers should leak? 

900. What is one of the greatest benefits to be 
derived from the use of the straight air brake valve 
in road service? 

901. What is the function of the safety valve on the 
brake cylinder? 

902. For what purpose are the release cocks? 

903. Where are the release air cocks located on the 
engine? 



B2 H. S. EQUIPMENT—NEW YORK AIR BRAKE. 

The locomotive brake equipment described and illus- 
trated herewith is known as the B2-HS equipm.ent and 
is arranged in three different schedules to cover the re- 
quirements of railroad service in general. 

Schedule B2 covers the single pressure system, B2- 
HP the double pressure S3-stem, and B2-HS the double 
pressure system with high speed attachment such as 
shown herewith. 

The equipment dift'ers materially from any schedule 
heretofore furnished. As with the Combined Automatic 
and Straight Air Brake, the independent brake valve 
has been dispensed with, and by the addition of the Du- 
plex Pressure Controller and Accelerator Valve, more has 
been accomplished than was heretofore possible, and with 
less apparatus. 

With this equipment the train brakes can be released, 
and the locomotive brakes held on. The locomotive 
brakes can then be released wdien desired, or can be ap- 
plied and released independently of the train brakes, or 
together with same at the option of the engineer. 

The locomotive brakes can be operated at all times by 
automatic or independent application, and w^ithout re- 
gard to position of the locomotive in a train, whether 
used as a helper, coupled to another or assigned to any 
other part of train. They can be applied and released 
at will, and can be graduated off after an application of 
the train brakes; therefore, in all kinds of service the 
train brakes can be handled without shock to the train. 

627 



628 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

The accelerator valve will be found a valuable addi- 
tion to these equipments when operating long trains, for, 
with the use of same, shorter stops will be effected, and 
a more uniform application of the train brakes obtained. 

All excess pressure is confined to the main reservoir, 
and in no position of the brake valve handle can the 
brake pipe pressure increase above its maximum. This 
will prevent over-charging of auxiliary reservoirs on the 
head end of trains, and also reduce the strain on air brake 
hose. 

B2 EQUIPMENT. 

This equipment is designed for passenger or freight 
service where but one brake pipe pressure is used. 

Both pump governor and pressure controller have 
single regulating heads. The pressure head for the pres- 
sure controller should be adjusted to 70 lbs. for brake 
pipe pressure, and the pump governor head adjusted to 
90 lbs. for main reservoir pressure. 



B2-S EQUIPMENT. 

This equipment is for use with switch engines as be- 
fore stated. A single pump governor is provided, also a 
single pressure controller for brake pipe pressure regu- 
lation. In the pipe connecting the regulating and sup- 
ply portions of the pressure controller is located cut-out 
cock No. 2. When this cock is open the controller should 
give a maxim.um brake pipe pressure of 70 lbs. and the 
pump governor adjusted to no lbs. for main reservoir 
pressure. This will give the necessary air pressure for 
freight service. By closing the cut-out cock the pressure 



B2 EQUIPMENT 629 

controller will become inoperative, allowing the main 
reservoir pressure of no lbs. to pass to the brake valve, 
and brake pipe for high speed service. 



B2-HP EQUIPMENT. 

This equipment is for use in freight service only. Both 
regulating portions of the pump governor and pressure 
controller are duplex, so that pressures of 70 and 90 lbs. 
can be carried in the brake pipe and 90 and no lbs. in 
the main reservoir for the ordinary brake pipe pressure 
and the high pressure control. 

For the operation of these duplex regulating portions, 
three way cocks are provided, being connected as shown 
in the piping diagram. 

To operate these cocks turn the handle in line with 
the pipe leading to the regulating head to be used, high 
or low pressure as desired. This will cut in the head to 
regulate the supply portion, and cut off the one not in 
use. 

B2-HS EQUIPMENT. 

High speed locomotive brake equipment. The system 
of regulation of pressure for the high speed equipment 
is the same as with the B2-HP except that the regulat- 
ing heads of the pressure controller should be adjusted 
to 70 and no lbs. for brake pipe pressure, and the pump 
governor heads adjusted to 90 and 120 or 130 lbs. as 
desired for main reservoir pressure. 



630 • LOCO]\IC)TIVE ENGINEERING 



MANIPULATION. 

On the folded sheet (Plate 36) will be found piping 
diagrams of the several B-2 equipments, and it should 
be referred to in connection with the following instruc- 
tions : 



GENERAL. 

To apply the locomotive and train brakes (automatic), 
move the handle of the brake valve to the graduating 
notch necessary to make the required brake pipe reduc- 
tion. 

To release both locomotive and train brakes, move 
the handle to Running and Straight Air release position. 

To release the train brakes and hold the locomotive 
brakes set (Straight Air), move the handle to Full Auto- 
matic release and Straight Air application position. 

To release the locomotive brakes, move the handle to 
Rinming and Straight Air release position. 

To apply the locomotive brakes (Straight Air), move 
the handle to Full Automatic release and Straight Air 
application position. 

To apply the brakes in an emergency, move the handle 
quicklv to Emergency position, and leave it there until the 
train stops, or the danger has passed. 

In case the automatic brakes are applied by the burst- 
ing of a hose, the train parts, or a conductor's valve is 
opened, place the handle in Lap position to retain the 
main reservoir pressure. 

To graduate off or entirely release the locomotive 
brakes after an application of the train brakes, use the 
lever safety valve to make the required reduction. 



? ^-3 I 



n 



fi Si 



^ § 




PIPING DIAGRAM B!J— HS EQUIPMENT. 



15-| 



52 &1 



B2 EQUIPMENT 631 

The handle of the brake valve will be found to v^rork 
freelv and easily at all times, as the pressure on the main 
slide valve does not exceed the maximum brake pipe pres- 
sure. 

The cylinder gauge will show at all times the pressure 
in the locomotive brake cylinders, and should be observed 
in all brake manipulations. 

Where there are two or more locomotives in a train 
cut-out cock No. I, shown in plate 36, should be turned 
to close the brake pipe, and the brake valve handle carried 
in Running and Straight Air release position on all loco- 
motives, except the one from which the brakes are oper- 
ated. 

In case it becomes necessary to cut out the Straight 
Air brake, close cut-out cock No. 3 which is located in 
the straight air pipe between the Brake Valve and the 
Reducing Valve. 

To cut out the Automatic Brake, close cut-out cock 
Xo. 6 located in the pipe connecting the Triple Valve 
with the Double Check Valve. 

By locating the cut-out cock between the Triple and 
Double Check Valves, the auxiliary reservoirs will re- 
main charged, while the brake is cut out, and can be 
alternatecl with the train brakes in descending long grades 
to prevent overheating of the locomotive tires. 

Cut-out cocks Nos. 3 and 6 are special, they are of 
the three-way pattern, and when turned off drain the 
pipes leading to the double check valve to keep the latter 
seated in the direction of the closed cock. 

The main reservoir cock No. 4 is to cut off the sup- 
ply of air when removing any of the apparatus except 
the governor. 

The straight air controller is to limit the pressure in 



632 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

the driver, truck and tender brake cylinders for the 
straight air brake, and should be adjusted to 40 pounds 
pressure. 

Cut-out cocks Nos. 5, 6 and 7 are recommended when 
truck brake is used, their purpose being fully understood. 
Nos. 9 and 10 can be added, if desired, so that the driver 
brake cylinders and reservoir can be cut out, and engine 
truck brake operated by truck brake reservoir. 



THE B2 BRAKE VALVE. 

This brake valve, although modeled somewhat upon 
the principles of the B and Bi valves, is necessarily dif- 
ferent in detail so as to embody the features of the pres- 
sure controller and those of the united straight air. Fig. 
266 is a photographic view of the valve. Fig. 267 is a 




Fig. 26fi. B-2 Brake Valve. 

longitudinal side section showing travel of main slide 
valve EV 194 and how the graduating valve EV 110 
is controlled by the piston JLV 193. This view also shows 
the different positions of the brake valve handle. Fig. 
268 is a top view of the valve with the cover, slide valve 



634 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



and handle removed, showing seat and connections for 
the straight air and divided reservoir pipes. Fig. 269 
is a cross section through the valve (rear view). Fig. 

270 is a cross section through the main slide valve. Fig. 

271 shows the face of the main slide valve. 




EV60 

visa 

JCOPPER «PC 

TO SUPfLCMCNt/UIV 



Fig. 267 



The main reservoir pipe is connected from the pressure 
controller to chamber B (Fig. 26/) in the top of the 
valve. The brake pipe is connected to chamber A. Dis- 
charge of brake pipe air to the atmosphere for service 
applications occurs through ports F and G in the main 
slide valve and exhaust passage C in the valve body and 
for emergency applications through ports J and K in 



THE B2 BRAKE VALVE 



635 




Fig. 26 



/~\ 




£VI30 



b^^r-^ 



EVI23 

ev6 

EV 




Fig. 269. 



Fig. 270. 



636 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



the slide valve (Fig. 271) and exhaust passage C. The 
main slide valve also controls the flow of air from the 
main reservoir to the brake pipe. In Full automatic re-- 
lease position air is free to pass from the main reservoir 
to the brake pipe through ports M and also around 
the slide valve, as in this position the slide valve is moved 
forward, uncovering a portion of the passage. (See Fig. 
2^2.) When the handle is in Running position only 
ports M are open but are of a size to promptly release 
all train brakes. (See Fig. 273.) 

FACE OF SUDE VALVE 




Small slide valve EV no is a cut-oif or graduating 
valve, operated by piston EV 193, and lever EV 112. 
In service applications it automatically laps port F, and 
stops the discharge of brake pipe air when the brake 
pipe reduction, corresponding to the service graduating 
notch in which the handle is placed, has been made. 
Piston EV 193, which is exposed on one side to brake 
pipe pressure (Chamber A) and on the other to Chamber 
D, and supplementary reservoir pressure, through the 
agency of lever EV 112 causes valve EV no to move 
automatically whatever distance is necessary to close port 
F. 

Passage H (Figs. 267 and 269) runs lengthwise to the 
valve, one end leading to the supplementary reservoir 



THE B2 BRAKE VALVE 



637 



as indicated in Fig. 267, while the other end leads to the 
space D, back of the piston EV 193. In Full auto- 
matic release, and in Running and Straight Air release 
positions, air from chamber B, Fig. 268, passes through 
port W to passage H and supplementary reservoir, until 
there is equal pressure on both sides of the piston EV 
193 and the supplementary reservoir pressure is equal to 
the brake pipe pressure. 



S XT J Ac" 




__: F._o^ _ J p.. V.R. 

Fig. 272. Release Position. 



Port O (Fig. 26^]), is used to return the piston EV 
193 to its normal position when releasing the brakes, and 
is open to the exhaust passage C when the handle of 
the brake valve is in Full Automatic Release, Running, 
and Lap positions, and closes just before the handle is 
brought to the first graduating notch. During the time 
the brake valve handle is in any of these positions, 
port O is open through passage C to the atmosphere, 
as stated, and if it were not for the vent valve YX 180 the 
function of piston EV 193 would be destroyed, as a con- 
tinual blow from chamber D would result while the pis- 
ton EV 193 is in operation the vent valve YX 180 is 
away from its seat, thus opening port O to the slide valve 



638 



LOCOAIOTIVE ENGINEERING 



seat, to be opened when the handle is again returned to 
release position. 

Connection is made with the straight air pipe through 
passage L (See Figs. 268 and 272) to which ports E 
and V connect from the main slide valve seat. Port E 
is the admission port and is open to receive pressure 
from chamber B when the handle of the brake valve is 
in Full automatic release and Straight Air application 
position. Port V is the exhaust port and is used to ex- 
haust the pressure from the driver brake cylinders in 
releasing the straight air brake, the release being accom- 
plished through ports R and J in the main slide valve, 
and passage C in the valve body. (See Fig. 273.) 




LW. E . A _^ h O P R 

Fig. 273. RuDiiiiig- Pii^ition. 



N 



Port A^ is also used to pass pressure from chamber B to 
the straight air brake when the handle is in the Fifth 
graduating notch and Emergency position. This is done 
so that if there is cylinder leakage or excessive piston 
travel, the Straight Air brake will hold the pressure in 
these cylinders to the adjustment of the Reducing Valve, 

In all graduating positions of the Brake Valve, brake 
pipe pressure is admitted to the divided reservoir (Large 
compartment Fig. 279) to operate the Accelerator \^alve. 



THE B2 BRAKE VALVE 639 

When the Brake Valve handle is moved to any of the 
graduating notches, brake pipe pressure will flow through 
port S, passage X, and cavity AC in the main slide valve 
(Fig. 271) and tlirough port T, and passage Y in the 
\^alve body (Fig. 268) to the divided reservoir until the 
port S is cut off by the Graduating Valve EV no, 
when the latter closes the service port F. To guard 
against possibiHty of the Accelerator Valve being open 
while the Brake Valve handle is in a Release position, 
which might occur if the handle was returned before a 
service application had been completed, port J in the main. 
sHde valve (Fig. 271) has been enlarged so as to open 
port T to the exhaust passage C, and the atmosphere 
when the handle is in a release position. These ports are 
large enough to rapidly discharge the air accumulated 
in the divided reservoir, and thereby permit the accele- 
rator valve to immediately close. By referring to the 
diagrammatic views of the main slide valve and seat 
shown in Figs'. 2^2 to 277 inclusive, it will be seen what 
ports are open and closed in the different positions of the 
slide valve. 



FULL AUTOMATIC RELEASE AND STRAIGHT AIR APPLI- 
CATION POSITION (fig. 272). 

The purpose of this position is to promptly release the 
automatic brakes and to apply the straight air brakes on 
the Locom.otive. In this position, air is flowing directly 
from chamber B (main reservoir) into chamber K (brake 
pipe) past the end of the slide valve and through ports 
M, Port O is open to port J and exhaust passage C to 
return the piston EV 193, and port W is open to charge 
the supplementary reservoir. Port T, also by means of 



640 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

port J, is open to the exhaust passage C to discharge 
the pressure from the large compartment of the divided 
reservoir. Port E is also open for pressure to pass to the 
driver brake cylinders through the straight air pipe until 
shut off by the reducing valve. 



running position. 

Running and Straight Air Release Position. 
(Fig. 273.) This is the proper position of the handle 
when wishing to release both Straight Air and Automatic 
brakes simultaneously, or to release the Straight Air 
Brake. Connection from Chamber B into Chamber A 




W E F J O 

Fig. 274. Lap Position. 

is made through the ports M. Port E is lapped. Ports 
O, T and W remain the same as in Release Position. 
Ports R and V register with each other, thus connecting 
the straight air brake with the exhaust passage C as 
shown, to discharge the pressure from the driver brake 
cylinders. 

Lap Position. (Fig. 274.) This position should be 
used in case a hose bursts, the train parts or a con- 
ductor's valve is opened, to save the main reservoir pres- 



THE B2 BRAKE VALVE 



641 



sure. In this position all ports are blanked, excepting 
port O. As in Release and Running Positions, this port 
is open to the exhaust passage C. In this particular posi- 
tion cavity P in the slide valve seat is made use of to 
connect the port with passage C. 



X JT Ac 




Fig. 275. First Graduating Position. 

Graduating Positions. (Figs 275 and 276.) These 
positions give a gradtial reduction of brake pipe pres- 
sure for service applications. In Fig. 275 ports M are 




Fig. 276. Last Graduating Position. 



blanked and communication from the main reservoir to 
the brake pipe is cut off. The straight air ports E and 
V are also blanked, as well as ports O and W, which are 
cut off just before the handle reaches the First Gradual- 



642 



LOCOMOTIA^E ENGINEERING 



ing Notch. Ports F and G are open to the exhaust pass- 
age C, and port S is open through passage X to port T 
to receive pressure from the brake pipe and pass it to the 
divided reservoir to operate the Accelerator A'alve. Ports 
F and S will remain open to receive brake pipe pressure 
until cut off by the graduating valve E\' no when the 
service reduction has been made. 

In the remainder of the Graduating Positions, the rela- 
tion of ports remains the same with the exception of the 
restricted passage N (Fig 276) in the end of the slide 
valve which in the Fifth Graduating notch is over the 
straight air port Y, and should there be excessive piston 
travel or cylinder leakage the Straight Air equipment 
will hold the pressure in these cylinders to the adjustment 
of the reducing valve. The restriction of port N is to 
prevent the pressure from passing to the driver brake 
cylinders in advance of pressure from the auxiliary reser- 
voir of the automatic brake. 




W- FE 



Fig. 277. Emergency Position. 
EMERGENCY POSITION (fIG. 2yy) . 

This position is to be used when it is desired to apply 
the brakes to their quickest and fullest capacity. In this 
position, the active ports are J and K, which are open 
to exhaust brake pipe pressure from chamber A to the 



I 



THE B2 BRAKE VALVE 643 

atmosphere. Port V as in the fifth graduating notch is 
open to maintain the pressure in the driver brake cyHn- 
ders against leakage, etc. Port E is closed, also ports F, 
M, ofs, T and W. 

To dismantle the Valve, the valve cover EV 195 should 
first be removed, and then the back cap EV 191. The 
main slide valve E\' 194 should be taken ofl^, and the 
Graduating valve E\' no lifted out — also the Graduat- 
ing valve spring EV in. Next remove the fulcrum 
pin EV 113, after which remove the piston E\^ 193. 

Do not attempt to remove the follower cap nut EV 
181 from the piston EV 193 while the piston is in the 
valve body, as to do this would probably result either in 
springing the groove in the piston stem, or in breaking 
off the dowel pin in the valve body. 

Figs, 26"] to 270 show the different parts of the valve, 
their names being as follows : EV 60, Small union nut ; 
E\'' ()2, Small union ell; EV 69, Handle spring; EV 75, 
Handle pin; EV 'j'j, Handle set screw; EV 95, Lever 
shaft pin with cotter; EV 96, ^" pli-^g; EV 103, End 
plug; EV 105-A, Follower; EV 107, Packing Leather; 
EV 108, Expander; EV no, Graduating Valve; EV in, 
Graduating valve spring; EV 112, Graduating valve 
lever; EV 113, Fulcrum pin ; EV 116-A, Link ; EV 117-A 
Link pin; EV 118, Slide valve lever; EV 120, Lever 
shaft; EV 121, Lever shaft packing; EV 123, Handle; 
EV 128, Small union stud; EV 129, Cover screw; EV 
130, Quadrant screw; EV 158, Small union swivel; EV 
159, Cover gasket ; EV 172, Latch ; EV 173, Latch screw ; 
EV 175, Link pin cotter; EV 180, Vent valve; EV 181, 
Follower cap nut; EV 182, Vent valve spring; E\^ 183, 
Piston cotter ; EV 190, Body ; EV 191, Back cap ; EV 192, 
Cap gasket; EV 193, Piston; EV 194, Main slide valve; 



644 



LOCOMOTR'E ENGINEERING 



EV 195, A^alve cover; E\^ 196, Lever shaft plug; EV 198, 
Quadrant; EV 199, Back cap stud and nut; QT 3, Piston 
ring; QT 29, 1" Union nut; QT 30, i" Union swivel; 
QT 31, i" Union gasket. 




ro BRAKE VALVC 

fig. 278. 

SUPPLEMENTARY RESERVOIR USED WITH SWITCH ENGINE 

EQUIPMENT, SCHEDULE B2-S (FiG. 278). 

NAMES OF FARTS. 

EV 60, Small union nut ; EV 155, Supplementary reser- 
voir; EV 156, Reservoir plug; EV 158, Union swivel (^" 
copper pipe). 

Piece No. 16RV 




Fig. 279. 
E V 60— Small union nut. 
EV 62— Small union ell. 
E V 156— Reservoir plug. 
E V 158— Union swivel. 



^^ 

™ EV200 

Divided Reservoir. 

E V 197— Divided reservoir. 

E V 200— Botton plug. 

R V 134— K-inch stud and nut. 

R V 143— Accelerator valve gasket. 



THE DUPLEX PRESSURE CONTROLLER AND 
DOUBLE PRESSURE SYSTEM. 

This valve, m reality, is a part of the Brake Valve, 
taking place of the excess pressure or feed valve, and 
is connected in the main reservoir pipe near the Brake 
Valve, to control the brake pipe pressure. The Con- 




Fig. 280. Duplex Regulating Portion of Pressure Controller.! 

troller is in principle the same as that of a Duplex^ 
Pump Governor with the exception of the regulating tops, 
which connect to the brake pipe. In no position of 
the Brake Valve handle is there danger of the brake 

645 



646 



LOCOAIOTIVE ENGINEERING 



pipe becoming over-charged, or equal to that in the main 
reservoir. 

This equipment is designed so that two pressures 
may be carried in the brake pipe, and also in the main 
reservoir. It will be seen by reference to the piping 
diagram that there is a union three-way cock, from which 
pipes lead to the regulating tops, and supply which in 
this case is brake pipe pressure. The same arrange- 




Fig. 281. Supply Portion of Pressure Controller. 



ment also applies to the pump governor. A sectional 
view of this cock is shown in Figs 284 and 285. When 
one regulating top is cut in the other one is cut out and 
vice versa. This is done to relieve the strain on the regu- 
lating tops when not working. When the cocks are in 
the position shown in the piping diagram the low pres- 
sure regulating tops of the Controller and Duplex Pump 



DUPLEX PRESSURE CONTROLLER 647 

Governor are cut in, giving a pressure of seventy pounds 
to the brake pipe, and ninety pounds to the main reser- 
voir. When the cocks are reversed, one hundred and 
ten pounds will then be carried in the brake pipe, and 
one hundred and thirty pounds in the main reservoir. 

Fig. 280 is a photographic view of the Duplex Pres- 
sure controller, and Fig. 281 is a view of the supply por- 
tion. Figs. 282 and 283 are sectional views of both the 




duplex and single regulating portions. Fig. 286 shows 
the supply portion in section. Referring to 'Fig. 286, con- 
nection is made with the main reservoir at 'M. R. and 
by means of the cored passage, air is free to pass to the 
under side of the valve P G 95. Connection BV leads to 
the brake valve, main reservoir connection, and connection 
D to the regulating portion (single or duplex) also con- 
necting at D in Figs. 282 and 283. 

In operation with either a single or duplex regulat- 



648 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



ing portion, as soon as the pressure in the brake pipe 
is great enough to overcome the resistance of the spring 
PG 10 which is holding the diaphragm PG 13 seated over 
port B, the pressure will pass through passage E to 
connection D, and by piping to the space E in the sup- 
ply portion of the controller above the piston PG 4, forc- 
ing the piston, and valve PG 95 down until seated, cut- 
ting off communication between main reservoir and brake' 
pipe. 




Fig. 283. 

As soon as the pressure falls in the brake pipe below 
the adjustment of spring PG 10, the latter will force 
diaphragm PG 13 to its seat, closing off port B, where- 
upon pressure in passage E, and piping connecting 
supply and regulating portions, and space E above pis- 
ton PG 4 will immediately escape to the atmosphere 
through the small port C in the regulating head of the 
controller, after which main reservoir pressure will lift 
valve PG 95 off its seat, and again open communication 
to the brake pipe. 



. DUPLEX PRESSURE CONTROLLER 649 

Port X in the supply portion of the controller con- 
nects the under side of piston PG 4 with atmosphere, 
so that it will be free to operate and to discharge any 
leakage by the ring PG 24 or valve PG 95. 

The regulating portions are provided with brackets 
so that they can be attached to the cab in some con- 
venient place where they will be handy for adjustment. 
The adjustment of these regulating heads is accomplished 
by means of nut PG 35 which regulates the tension of 
spring PG 10. 





Fig. 284. 



Pier. 285. 



Each regulating head has a vent port C, and to avoid 
any unnecessary waste of air, one of these heads should 
be plugged with screw PG 33. The cut-out cock shown 
in Fig. 285 is used with the B2S equipment, between the 
regulating and supply portions. When this cock is closed 
the supply portion of the controller is cut off. 

The hand wheel PG 45 can be used in descending 
grades if desired, to increase the brake pipe pressure 
to that of the main reservoir. By screwing the wheel 
up, it will lift the valve PG 95 off its seat and thus al- 
low the two pressures to become equal. The Controller 
will then be inoperative, and main reservoir pressure will 
be free to pass to the brake pipe until the Controller is 
again restored to its operative condition. 



650 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



The names of parts of the regulating portion are : PG 
3 A Spring Casing; PG 10 Regulating Spring; PG 12A 
and B Diaphragm button; PG 13 Diaphragm; PG 14 
Air valve seat; PG 32 Diaphragm body; PG 33 Vent 
plug; PG 34 Cap; PG 35 Regulating nut; PG 36 Air 
union swivel (%" copper pipe) ; PG 37 Air union nut; 
PG 98 Duplex bracket ; EV 60 Small union nut ; EV 
128 Small union stud; EV 158 small union swivel (}i" 
copper pipe). The parts of the three-way cock are: SC 
57 Washer; SC 58 Nut; SC 129 Body; SC 130 Plug; 
E\^ 60 Small union nut; EV 158 Union Swivel {}i" cop- 
per pipe). 




Fig. 286. 



The parts of the supply portion are : PG 4 Piston ; 
PG 6A Valve guide; PG 24 Piston ring; PG 45 Hand 
wheel ; PG 46 Lifting Stem ; PG 48 Body ; PG 49 Cap ; 
PG 94 Guide; PG 95 Valve; PG 99 i^" union nut; PG 
100 134" union swivel; EV 60 Small union nut; EV 128 
Small union stud; EV 158 Union swivel (^" copper 
pipe) ; SA 6 Leather seat ; SA 39 Valve stem nut ; AV 28 
Hand wheel nut. 



ACCELERATOR VALVE. 

This valve is designed to assist the Brake Valve in 
discharging brake pipe pressure when making service 
stops on long trains to bring about a more uniform ap- 
plication of the brakes, and to apply them more promptly 
than heretofore. 




Fig. 287. Accelerator Valve. 

The Valve is perfectly automatic in its operation, be- 
ing governed entirely by the volume of air in the brake 
pipe, operating only when the train is of such a length 

651 



652 



LOCOMOTIVE EXGIXEERIXG 



as to warrant the use of same. The operation is similar 
to that of the graduating mechanism in the Brake Valve, 
opening about four seconds after the Brake \'alve han- 
dle has been moved to a graduating notch, and closing 
in about the same length of time after the graduating 
valve has closed. 

Fig. 287 is an outside view of the Valve showing con- 
nection to brake pipe and exhaust which is through the 
street ell. A sectional view is shown in Fig. 288. The 
\'alve is bolted to the end of the divided reservoir (Fig. 



fTTh- 




Fig. 288 

279), and receives pressure from same through passage 
O which connects to the space C above the piston RV 
65. The brake pipe connection leads to the slide valve 
chamber O. 

Chamber B is open to the atmosphere through port 
T, and in the operation of the \'alve, will carry off the 
discharge of pressure through port S, and any leakage 
by the piston RV 65 or valve stem RV 6j. 



ACCELERATOR VALVE 653 

The slide valve RV 74, when at rest, laps the port 
b and exhaust, and Is held in this position by the spring 
OT 231 through the medium of valve stem RV 67, 
which seats in the manner shown. Port b is triangular, 
the larger portion being at the bottom., and in oper- 
ation brake pipe pressure is gradually cut off as the 
slide valve closes. Port a in the slide valve is oblong 
being just long enough to uncover the triangular port 
b, when the slide valve is wide open. To give the slide 
valve a slow closure port R Is provided in the valve body, 
and port S through the piston RV 65 as shown. When 
the valve is in operation and brake pipe pressure is being 
discharged to the atmosphere through ports a and b, 
ports R and S are open to discharge the pressure above 
the piston and divided reservoir. As soon as the pres- 
sure in the divided reservoir has reduced sufficiently for 
the spring QT 231 to operate, it will move the valve 
slowly upward until the port R Is cut off, which will then 
reduce the discharge from" the reservoir about one-half, 
giving the slide valve the slow closure desired. 

The valve operates when there are eight or more cars 
in a train, and requires from fifteen to seventeen pounds 
pressure in the divided reservoir to operate It. Any 
pressure passing into this reservoir, as with a shorter 
train than eight cars, will be discharged to the atmos- 
phere through ports S and T, the slide valve remaining 
closed. 

The proper names of parts of the accelerator valve 
are as follows: PG 24, Piston ring; RV 62, Body; 
RV 63, Upper cap; RV 64, Lower cap; RV 65, Piston; 
RV 67, Valve stem ; RV 70, Leather seat ; RV 74, Slide 
valve; QT 231, Spring; EV 656, Slide valve spring; 
HS 24, y2" Street ell. 



STRAIGHT AIR REDUCING VALVE. 

Tlie purpose of this valve is to limit the pressure in 
the driver, and truck brake cylinders, to 40 pounds when 
using the straight air brake. 




Fig. 289. Straight Air Redueiug Valve. 



Fig. 289 is a photographic view of the reducing valve 
and Fig. 290 a section showing the valves, passages, etc. 

Connection from the brake valve is made to the union 
fitting A and by means of the passage C pressure is free 
to pass to the feed valve SA 26. Connection B leads to 

654 



AIR REDUCING VALVE 



655 



double check valve and brake cylinders. During the time 
the tension of the spring against the diaiphragm is 
stronger than the force exerted against it by the brake 
cylinder pressure, valve SA 26 will be held open, where- 
upon pressure from the main reservoir will 'be free to 
pass to the brake cylinders. As soon as the pressure 



fi^ 




Fig. 290. 



against the diaphragm is strong enough to overcome the 
resistance of the spring, the diaphragm will be moved 
upward, allowing the feed valve SA 26 to be closed by 
the spring SA 28, shutting off communication from the 
supply to the brake cylinders. 

The names of the parts of this valve are as follows : 
SA 19, Regulating stem; SA 20, Regulating spring; SA 



656 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

21, Diaphragm stem; SA 22, Nut; SA 23, Diaphragm 
Washer; SA 24, Body; SA 25, Feed valve cap nut; SA 
2(i, Feed Valve ; S A 28, Feed valve spring ; S A 29, 
Spring box; SA 30, Check nut; SA 31, Diaphragm ring; 
SA 32, Diaphragm; SA 33, Diaphragm Shield; SA 34, 
Regulating nut; EV 253, ^" Union nut; EV 254, ^" 
Union swivel ; EV 255, ^" Union gasket. 



HIGH SPEED CONTROLLER WITH LEVER 
SAFETY VALVE. 

This valve is operative when the locomotive equipment 
is set for high speed service. 




Fig. 291. High Speed Controller. . 

Fig. 291 is an outside view showing the general ar- 
rangement. Fig. 292 is a section showing the operative 
parts. 

The Safety Valve is for use at all times to graduate 
off brake cylinder pressure after an application of tli« 

657 



658 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



train brakes when same is desired and to regulate the 
pressure in the brake cylinders during high speed oper- 
ations. It is set at 53 pounds, and should so be adjusted 
in service. 




HSI08 
HSKD6 



To Brake Cylinders 



The High Speed Valve to which the Safety Valve is 
fastened connects with the brake cylinder pipe at BC 
and with brake pipe at BP. 

The valve HS 108 with piston HS 107 operates when 
the brake pipe pressure is less than the pressure in brake 
cylinders. During all ordinary service applications the 
valve HS 108 will remain in position shown. In an 
emergency application when t)rake pipe pressure is 



HIGH SPEED CONTROLLER 



659 



greatly reduced, the brake cylinder pressure will move 
the piston HS 107, and valve its full traverse to the seat 
C. This movement will restrict passage G leading to the 
safety valve, and atmosphere by the circular groove in 
the valve HS 108 being moved forward, closing a por- 
tion of the passage. This will give a gradual blow down 
from the brake cylinders through passage G until shut 
off by the Safety Valve. The valve will remain in this 
position until the brakes are released. 



RV I04 



RV 103 




Fig. 293. 



Ports F and D allow the brake cylinder pressure around 
the piston HS 107, and back of the valve HS 108, so 
that the piston is free to operate at a slight difference 
of pressure. 

Fig. 293 is a sectional view of the lever safety valve, 
furnished with schedules B2, B2-S and B2-HP. 

Fig. 294 shows the quick release valve which is used 



66o 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



with the B2-S equipment, for switch engine service, to 
quickly release the pressure from the driver brake 
cylinders. 

The lever safety valves shown in Figs. 292 and 293 are 
for use at all times to graduate off brake cylinder pres- 
sure, after an application of train brakes, when the same 
is desired. These valves are set at fifty-three pounds, and 
should be so adjusted in service. 




The two lever safety valves, although similar in ap- 
pearance, are different in operation. In Fig. 292 the 
valve RV 133 is of a pop-safety valve design, and when 
forced open will remain so until the pressure beneath 
it has fallen to a trifle less than the force exerted against 
it by the spring RV 105 A. The safety valve shown in 
Fig. 293 is an ordinary blow-down pop valve, and while 
it will operate and reduce brake cylinder pressure to 
the desired amount, is not as free an operating valve as 



HIGH SPEED CONTROLLER 66i 

the one shown in Fig. 292. It is obvious to state that 
these lever safety valves are also for use to keep the 
brake cylinder pressure within a certain prescribed limit, 
as, if they were not used, an application of the straight 
air brake, followed by one of the automatic, would 
greatly increase the brake cylinder pressure over the pre- 
scribed limit. 

The quick release valve shown in Fig. 294, as before 
stated, is for use with schedule B2-S switch engine equip- 
ment. This valve is to hasten the release after an ap- 
plication of the automatic or straight air brakes. Re- 
ferring to Fig. 294, connection A leads to the double 
check valve as shown in the piping diagram of this 
equipment. Connection B leads to the driver brake cyl- 
inders and connection X to the exhaust. 



QUESTIONS. 

904. What is the latest addition to the New York Du- 
plex Air Brake System ? 

905. How many of these, and what are they? 

906. Name the different systems covered by these 
three equipments? 

907. In what leading features do the B2 equipments 
differ from older New York systems previously de- 
scribed ? 

908. What other advantage is gained by its use ? 

909. What advantage is gained by the use of the ac- 
celerator valve? 

910. What other advantage is there in connection with 
its use? 

91 1. For what conditions of service is the plain B2 de- 
signed. 

912. For what class of service is the B2S equipment 
adapted ? 

913. For what class of service is the B2HP equipment 
designed only? 

914. How many pressures may be carried in the brake 
pipe, or in the main reservoir, with the B2H.P. ? 

915. How are these pressures regulated? 

916. How are the regulating portions operated? 

917. For what kind of service is the B2H.S. equip- 
ment adapted? 

918. How are the pressures regulated with this latter 
equipment ? 

919. How are the automatic brakes applied to loco- 
motive and train? 

662 



QUESTIONS 663 

920. How are they released? 

921. How are the train brakes released, and the lo- 
comotive brakes held? 

922. How are both released? 

923. How are the locomotive brakes released? 

924. How are the locomotive brakes (straight air) 
applied ? 

925. How are the brakes applied in an emergency? 

926. In case a hose bursts, the train parts, or a con- 
ductor's valve opens thereby applying the brakes, what 
should be done ? 

927. After an application of the train brakes, how 
may the locomotive brakes be graduated off, or entirely 
released if desired? 

928. How may the pressure in the locomotive brake 
cylinders be observed at all times ? 

929. When two, or more locomotives are in a train, 
what should be done with the air brake equipment on 
those locomotives from which the brakes are not ope- 
rated ? 

930. In case it becomes necessary to cut out the 
straight air brake, what must be done? 

931. How may the automatic brake be cut out? 

932. How may the cut out cock be located so that 
the auxiliary reservoirs will remain charged while the 
brake is cut out? 

933. What advantage would this be in descending 
long grades? 

934. What are the functions of cut out cocks Nos. 
3 and 6? 

935. What is the function of main reservoir cut out 
cock No. 4? 

936. What is the straight air controller designed for ? 



664 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

937- When should cut out cocks Nos. 5-6 and 7 be 
used? 

938. Mention some of the principal points of differ- 
ence between the B2 brake valve, and the B, and Bi 
valves ? 

939. What is the purpose of full automatic release, 
and straight air application position? 

940. What functions are performed by the valve, in 
running, and straight air release position ? 

941. When should Lap position be used? 

942. What are the functions of the graduating posi- 
tions ? 

943. When is emergency position to be used? 

944. What are some of the advantages gained by us- 
ing the duplex pressure controller, and double pressure 
system ? 

945. What is the Accelerator valve designed to ac- 
complish ? 

946. Is it automatic in operation? 

947. What is the purpose of the straight air reducing 
valve ? 

948. When is the high speed controller, with lever 
safety valve operative? 



ET LOCOMOTIVE BRAKE EQUIPMENT. 

The new locomotive equipment illustrated and de- 
scribed in this article is designated by the symbol ET. 
It differs materially from the present combined auto- 
matic and straight air brake in that it consists of con- 
siderably less apparatus. In operation it possesses all 
the advantages of the latter type of brake equipment and 
several other important ones which are necessary in mod- 
ern locomotive brake service to produce satisfactory re- 
sults. 

The design of the principal valves comprising the 
ET equipment is such that it may be applied to any loco- 
motive regardless of the service in which it is employed 
without change or modification in any of its parts; and 
the locom.otive so equipped may be used in any kind of 
service, such as high speed passenger, double-pressure 
control, all ordinary passenger and freight, and in all 
kinds of switching service, without change or special ad- 
justment of the brake apparatus. All principal valves are 
so designed that they may be removed for repairs and 
replacement without disturbing the pipe joints. 

In operation its important advantages are: The loco- 
motive brakes may be controlled with or independently of 
the train brakes and this without regard to the position 
of the locomotive in the train, whether coupled to another, 
as in double heading, or used as a helper and assigned to 
any position in the train. 

They may be applied with any desired pressure be- 
tween the minimum and the maximum attainable, and 

665 



666 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

this pressure will be automatically maintained in the loco- 
motive brake cylinders regardless of leakage and varia- 
tion in piston travel, undesirable though these defects are, 
until released by the brake valve. 

They can be perfectly graduated on or off either in 
the automatic or in the independent application; hence, 
in all kinds of service the train may be handled without 
shock or danger of parting, and in passenger service 
especially smooth, accurate stops can be made with 
greater ease than was heretofore possible. 

MAXIPULATION. 

The instructions for manipulating the ET equipment 
are practically the same as those given for the com- 
bined automatic and straight air brake ; therefore, no 
radical departure from present methods of brake manipu- 
lation is required to get the desired results. 

The necessar}- instructions are briefly as follows : 

When not in use, carry the handles of both brake 
valves in running position. 

To apply the locomotive and train brakes, move the 
handle of the automatic brake valve to the service posi- 
tion, making the required brake-pipe reduction, then back 
to lap position, which is the one for holding brakes ap- 
plied. 

To release the train brakes, move the handle to the 
release position and hold it there until all train brakes 
are released ; then, m.,ove it to holding position, graduat- 
ing off the locomotive brakes by short, successive move- 
ments between running and holding positions, aiming to 
have the locomotive brakes entirely released as the train 
stops. 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 667 

To apply the brakes in an emergency, move the handle 
of the automatic brake valve quickly to emergency posi- 
tion and leave it there-until the train stops, or the danger 
is passed. 

To make a smooth and accurate two-application pas- 
senger stop, make the first application sufficiently heavy 
to bring the speed of the train down to about 15 miles 
per hour at a convenient distance from the stopping point, 
then release train brakes by moving" the handle to release 
position, then the locomotive brakes by moving it to 
running position for two or three seconds before re-ap- 
plying. A little experience with the ET equipment will 
enable the engineer to make smooth and accurate stops 
with much greater ease than was heretofore possible. 

When using the independent brake onlv, the handle 
of the autom.atic brake valve should be carried in running 
position. The independent application may be released 
by m.oving the independent-brake-valve handle to running 
position. Release position is for use when the automatic 
brake valve handle is not in running position. 

While handling long trains of cars, in road or switch- 
ing service, the independent brake should be operated 
with care and judgment, to prevent damage to the cars 
and lading, caused by running the slack in or out too 
hard. In cases of emergency arising while the indepen- 
dent brake is applied, apply the automatic brake instantly. 
The safety valve will restrict the brake cylinder pressure 
to the proper maximum. The brakes on the locomotive 
and on the train should be alternated in heavy grade 
service, to prevent overheating of driving-wheel tires and 
to assist the pressure retaining valves in holding the train 
while the auxiliary reservoirs are being recharged. 

After all brakes are applied automatically, to gradu- 



668 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

ate off or entirely release the locomotive brakes only, use 
release position of the independent brake valve. 

The cylinder gauge will show at all times the pressure 
in the locomotive brake cylinders, and this gauge should 
be observed in all brake manipulation. 

Release Position of the Independent Brake Valve will 
release the locomotive brakes under any and all conditions. 

The train brakes should invariably be released before 
detaching the locomotive, holding with hand brakes where 
necessary. This is especially im.portant on a grade as 
there is otherwise no assurance that the car, cars, or 
train so detached will not start when the air brakes leak 
off, as they may in a short time where there is considera- 
ble leakage. 

The automatic brakes should never be used to hold a 
standing locomotive, or a train even where the locomotive 
is not detached, for longer than ten minutes, and not for 
such time if the grade is very steep or the condition of 
the brakes is not good. The safest method is to hold 
with hand brakes only, and keep the auxiliary reservoirs 
fully charged so as to guard against a start from brakes 
leaking off, and to be ready to obtain any part of full 
braking power immediately on starting. 

The independent brake is a very important safety 
feature in this connection, as it will hold a locomotive 
with a leaky throttle, or quite a heavy train on a fairly 
steep grade if, as the automatic brakes are released, the 
slack is prevented from running in or out, depending on 
the tendency of the grade, and giving the locomotive a 
start. Illustrating the best m-.ethod by a descending train, 
apply the independent brake heavily as the stop is being 
completed, thus bunching the train solidly; then, when 
stopped, place and leave the handle of the independent 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 669 

brake valve in application position, release the automatic 
brakes and keep them charged. Should the train start 
through inability of the independent brakes to hold it, 
the automatic brakes will have been sufficiently recharged 
to make an immediate stop, and in which case enough 
hand brakes should be applied to render the necessary 
aid to the independent brakes. 

Many runaways and some serious wrecks have resulted 
through failure to comply with the foregoing instruc- 
tions. 

When leaving the engine while doing work about it, or 
when it is standing at a coal chute or water plug, always 
leave the independent brake valve handle in application 
position. 

In case the automatic brakes are applied by a bursted 
hose, a break-in-two or the use of a conductor's valve, 
place the handle of automatic brake valve in lap position. 

Where there are two or more locomotives in a train, 
the double cut-out cock in the brake pipe under the auto- 
matic brake valve should be turned to close the brake 
pipe, and the automatic-brake-valve handle should be 
placed on lap on each except the one from which the 
brakes are being handled. 

Before leaving the roundhouse, the engineer should 
try the brakes with both brake valves, and see that no 
serious leaks exist. The pipes between the distributing 
valve and the brake valves should be absolutely tight. 



PARTS OF THE EQUIPMENT. 

1. The Air Pump to compress the air. 

2. The Main Reservoirs, in which to store the air 
and collect water and dirt. 



670 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

3. A Duplex Pump Governor to control the pump 
Avhen the pressures are attained for which it is regu- 
lated. 

4. A Distributing \^\lve, and small double-cham- 
ber reservoir to which it is attached, placed on the loco- 
motive to perform the functions of triple valves, auxiliary 
reservoirs, double check valve, high-speed reducing 
valves, etc. 

5. Two Brake V^alves, the Automatic to operate 
locomotive and train brakes, and the Independent to 
operate locomotive brakes only. 

6. A Feed ^"ALVE to regulate the brake-pipe pressure. 

7. A Reducing \'alve to reduce the pressure for the 
independent brake valve, and for the air signal system 
when used. 

8. Two Air Gauges ; one, a Duplex to indicate brake- 
pipe and main-reservoir pressures; the other, a Single 
Pointer to indicate locomotive brake-cylinder pressure. 

9. Driver, Tender, and Truck-Brake Cylinders, 
Cut-Out Cocks, Air Strainers, Hose Couplings, Fit- 
tings, etc., incidental to the piping, for purposes readily 
understood. 

The piping hereafter referred to is named as follows : 

Reservoir Pipe : Connects the main reservoir to the 
Automatic Brake Valve, Distributing Valve, Feed \"alve, 
and Reducing A-^alve. 

Feed-Val\-e Pipe : Connects the Feed Valve to the 
Automatic Brake Valve. 

Reducing- Valve Pipe: Connects the Reducing A'alve 
to the Independent Brake A^alve, and to the Signal Sys- 
tem, when used. 

Brake Pipe: Connects the Automatic Brake Valve 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 671 

with the Distributing Valve and all Triple Valves on the 
cars in the train. 

Brake-Cylinder Pipe: Connects the Distributing 
Valve with the Driver, Tender and Truck-Brake Cylin- 
ders. 

Application-Chamber Pipe: Connects the Applica- 
tion Chamber of the Distributing Valve to the Automatic 
Brake Valve through the Independent Brake Valve. 

Double-Heading Pipe: Connects the Application 
Chamber exhaust port of the Distributing Valve to the 
Automatic Brake Valve through the Double Cut-Out 
Cock. 



ARRANGEMENT OF APPARATUS. 

A piping diagram of the ET equipment is shown in 
Fig. 295. 

Air compressed by the pump passes as usual to the 
main reservoirs and the reservoir pipe. The main-reser- 
voir cut-out cock is to cut off the supply of air when 
removing any of the apparatus except the governor. The 
end toward the main reservoir is tapped for a connection 
to the maximum pressure head of the Pump Governor. 
When closed it discharges the air from the pipe between 
it and the automatic brake valve. 

Beyond the main-reservoir cut-out cock, the reser- 
voir pipe has four branches, one of which runs to the 
automatic brake valve, one to the feed valve, one to the 
reducing valve, and one to the distributing valve. As a 
result, the automatic brake valve receives air from the 
main reservoir in two ways, one direct and the other 
through the Feed Valve. 

The Feed- Valve Pipe from the feed valve to the auto- 



^-^2 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 673 

matic brake valve has a branch to the top of the excess- 
pressure head of the duplex pump governor. 

The third branch of the reservoir pipe xonnects with 
the reducing valve. Air at the pressure for which this 
valve is set (45 pounds) is thus supplied to the indepen- 
dent brake valve through the reducing-valve pipe. When 
the signal system is installed, it is connected to the re- 
ducing valve pipe, in which case the reducing valve takes 
the place of the signal reducing valve usually employed 
to supply the train air-signal system. In the branch pipe 
supplying the signal are placed a combined strainer and 
check-valve, and a special choke fitting. The former pre- 
vents any dirt from reaching the check valve and choke 
plug. The check valve prevents air from flowing back 
from the signal pipe when the independent brake is ap- 
plied. The choke plug prevents the reducing valve from 
raising the signal-pipe pressure so quickly as to destroy 
the operation of the signal. 

The distributing valve has five pipe connections, made 
through the double-chamber reservoir, three on the left 
and two on the right. Of the three on the left, the 
upper is the supply from the main reservoir; the inter- 
mediate is the double-heading pipe, leading through the 
double cut-out cock, when turned to cut out the brake 
valve from the brake pipe, to the automatic brake valve ; 
and the lower is the application-chamber pipe, leading 
through the independent-brake valve, when the handle is 
in running position, to the automatic brake valve. Of 
the two on the right, the lower is the brake-pipe-branch 
connection, and the upper is the brake-cylinder pipe 
branching to all brake cylinders on the engine and tender. 
In this pipe are placed cocks for cutting out the brake 
cylinders when necessary, and in the engine truck and 



6/4 LOCOMOTR'E EXGIXEERIXG 

tender brake cylinder cut-out cocks are placed special 
choke fittings to prevent serious loss of main-reservoir 
air, and the release of the other locomotive brakes during 
a stop, in case of burst brake cylinder hose connection. 
The cylinder gauge is connected with the brake cylinder 
pipe. 

The automatic-brake-valve pipe connections, other than 
already mentioned, are the brake-pipe branch through the 
double cut-out cock, the main-reservoir, the equalizing- 
reservoir, the duplex gauge, and the lower connection to 
the excess-pressure head of the pump governor. 




FIG. 296. DISTRIBUTING VALVE AXD DOUBLE-CHAMBER 

RESERVOIR 

COXXECTIOXS: 

SL'P — Main-Reservoir Pipe; ABV — Double-Heading Pipe; 

SBV — Application-Chamber Pipe 

THE DISTRIBUTIXG A\\LVE. 

This valve is the important feature of the ET equip- 
ment. Fig. 296 is a photographic view of the left side of 
the valve and its double-chamber reservoir. The three 
pipe connections, as previously referred to, are plainly 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



675 



shown. Fig. 297 is a similar view of the right side, show- 
ing the pipe connections there and the two chambers of 




FIG. 297. 



DISTRIBUTING VALVE AND DOUBLE-CHAMBER 
RESERVOIR 



Upper- 



PIPE CONNECTIONS: 
-Brake-Cylinder Pipe; Lower- 



-Brake Pipe 



the reservoir ; also the safety valve 34, which is an essen- 
tial part of the distributing valve. To simplify the tracing 
of the ports and connections, the various positions of this 



676 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




FIG. 298. THE DISTRIBUTING VALVE, DIAGRAMMATIC 
CONNECTIONS: 



MR — Main-Reservoir Pipe; DH — Double-Heading- Pipe; AC — Ap- 
plication-Chamber Pipe; BC — Brake Cylinder Pipe; BP— Brake 

Pipe 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 677 

valve are illustrated in ten diagrammatic drawings ; that 
is, the valve is distorted to show the parts differently than 
actually constructed, with the object of explaining the 
operation clearly instead of showing exactly how they 
are designed. The chambers of the reservoir are for con- 
venience indicated at the bottom as a portion of the valve 
itself. In Fig. 308, equalizing piston 26, graduating 
valve 28, and equalizing slide valve 31, are shown as 
actually constructed. But as there are ports in the valves 
which cannot thus be clearly indicated, the diagrammatic 
illustrations show each slide valve in two parts, one below 
and the other above the piston stem, with similar divisior 
of parts in the bush. 

Fig. 298 shows the operative parts in the same posi- 
tion as in Fig. 299 and is used merely for the sake of 
greater clearness. Referring to these figures 'it will be 
seen that main-reservoir pressure is always present in 
the chamber surrounding application valve 5 by its con- 
nection through passage a, a, to the main-reservoir pipe. 
Chambers b to the right of application piston 10 are al- 
ways in free communication with the brake cylinder 
through passage c and brake-cylinder pipe. Chamber g 
at the left of application piston 10 is a portion of the 
application chamber, being always connected with it by 
passage h, and is also connected to the brake valves 
through the application-chamber pipe. 

Independent Application. When the handle of the 
Independent Brake Valve is moved to the application 
position, air from the main reservoir, limited by the re- 
ducing valve to a maximum of 45 pounds, is allowed to 
flow to the application chamber, forcing application pis- 
ton 10 to the right as shown in Fig. 300. We will assume 
that 45 pounds is so admitted and maintained. This 



678 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




%/////////^///////////////////777^ 



FIG. 299. RELEASE, AUTOMATIC OR INDEPENDENT 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



679 




^''////////^////////////////////y^ 



FIG. 300. INDEPENDENT APPLICATION 



68o LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

movement of application piston lo causes exhaust valve 
1 6 to close exhaust ports e and d, and the graduating 
stem 19 to compress its spring; also open application 
valve 5 by its connection with the piston stem by pin 18. 
Alain reservoir air then flows through port h and passage 
c to the brake cylinders until their pressure and that in 
chamber h equals the application-chamber pressure, in 
this case 45 pounds. The graduating spring then forces 
the application piston 10 to the left until application valve 
5 closes port h, but without moving exhaust valve 16. 
This position shown in Fig. 301 is known as Independ- 
ent Lap. 

From the above description it will be seen that ap- 
plication piston 10 has application chamber .pressure on 
one side and brake-cylinder pressure on the other. When 
either pressure varies, the piston will move toward the 
lower. Consequently if that in cham^ber h is reduced, by 
brake-cylinder leakage, the pressure maintained in the ap- 
plication chamber will force piston 10 to the right, open- 
ing application valve 5 and again admitting main reservoir 
air to the brake cylinders until the pressures on both 
sides of piston 10 are again equal, when the graduating 
spring will force the piston back to lap position. In this 
way the brake-cylinder pressure is always maintained to 
that in the application chamber. This is called the pres- 
sure maintaining feature. 

Independent Release. When the handle of the in- 
dependent brake is moved to release position, a direct 
opening is made through the rotary valve from the ap- 
plication chamber to the atmosphere. This permits the 
pressure in the application chamber to escape; therefore, 
as this pressure is being exhausted, brake-cylinder pres- 
sure in chamber h moves application piston 10 to the left, 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



68i 




o 

• CD 

m 
m 



y^////y///J/>/////////////////7220 



FIG. 301. INDEPENDENT LAP 



682 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

causing exhaust valve i6 to open exhaust ports e and d 
as shown in Fig. 299, thereby allowing brake-cylinder 
pressure to escape to the atmosphere. 

If the independent brake valve is returned to lap be- 
fore all of the application-chamber pressure has escaped, 
the application piston 10 will return to independent lap 
position as soon as the brake-cylinder pressure is reduced 
a little below that remaining in the application chamber. 

AUTOMATIC OPERATION. 

During automatic operation of the brakes, the lower 
movable parts, known as the equalizing parts, are brought 
into action. 

Automatic Release. Referring to Fig. 299, which 
shows the movable parts of the valve in the release posi- 
tion, it will be seen that as chamber p is connected to 
the brake pipe, brake-pipe air flows through the feed 
groove around the top of piston 26 into the chamber 
above the slide valve 31, and through port to the pres- 
sure chamber, until the pressures on both sides of the 
piston are equal. 

Service. When a service application is made with 
the automatic brake valve, the brake-pipe pressure in 
chamber p is reduced, causing a difference in pressure on 
the two sides of this piston, which results in the piston 
moving toward the right. The first movement of the 
piston closes the feed groove, and at the same time moves 
the graduating valve until it uncovers the upper end of 
port ^ in the equahzing slide valve 31. As the piston 
continues its movem.ent, the shoulder on the end of its 
stem engages the slide valve, which is then also moved to 
the right until port z in the slide valve registers with port 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



683 






88 




^/x^//x^//x-'^X/^//////y-//X.<^.y/Z^ 



FIG. 302. AUTOMATIC SERVICE 



684 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

h in the seat. x\s the slide valve chamber is always in 
communication with the pressure chamber, air can now 
flow from it to the application chamber. This pressure 
forces application piston lo to the right, as shown in 
Fig. 302, causing application valve 5 to uncover port b 
and allow main reservoir air to flow to the brake cylin- 
ders through port c, as in an independent application. 

During the movement just described, cavity t in the 
graduating valve connects ports r and s in the equalizing 
slide valve, and by the same movement ports r and s are 
brought into register with ports h and / in the seat, thus 
establishing a communication from, the application cham- 
ber to the safety-valve, which being set at 53 pounds, 
limits the brake-cylinder pressure to this amount during 
a full service application. 

The amount of pressure resulting in the application 
chamber for a certain brake-pipe reduction, depends on 
the comparative volumes of the application and pressure 
chamber's. These volumes are such that with 70 pounds 
in the pressure chamber and nothing in the application 
chamber, if they are allowed to remain connected by the 
ports in the slide valve, they will equalize at about 50 
pounds. 

Service Lap. The conditions just described continue 
until the pressure in the pressure chamber is reduced 
enough below that in the brake pipe to cause the dif- 
ference in pressure on the two sides of piston 26 to 
force it and graduating valve 28 to the left until the 
shoulder on the piston stem strikes the right-hand end of 
slide valve 31, the position indicated in Fig. 303, and 
known as Service Lap. In this position, graduating 
valve 28 has closed port s so that no more air can flow 
from the pressure chamber to the application cham.ber; 



ET BR.\KE EQUIPMENT 



685 



^\S\\\\\^S^ ^^ 




m 

3) 



^////////M////////////////////^ 



FIG. 303. SERVICE LAP 



686 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

and it also has closed port s, cutting off communication 
to the safety valve. The flow of air past application 
valve 5 to the brake cylinders continues until their pres- 
sure equals that in the application chamber when the 
graduating spring forces piston lo to the position shown 
in Fig. 303, closing port b. The brake-cylinder pressure 
is then practically the same as that in the application 
chamber. 

It will be seen that whatever pressure exists in the 
application chamber will be maintained in the brake cyl- 
inder by the "pressure maintaining" feature already de- 
scribed. 

V\^hen the automatic brake valve is placed in release 
position, and the brake-pipe pressure in chamber p is 
increased above that in the pressure chamber, equalizing 
piston 26 moves to the left, carrying with it equalizing 
slide valve 31 and graduating valve 28 to the release 
position as shown in Fig. 299. The feed groove now 
being open permits the pressure in the pressure chamber 
to equalize with that in the brake pipe as before de- 
scribed. This action does not release the locomotive 
brakes because it does not discharge application cham.ber 
pressure. The double-heading pipe is closed at the double 
cut-out cock, and the application chamber pipe is closed 
by the rotary valve of the automatic brake valve. There- 
fore, to release the locomotive brakes, the automatic 
brake valve must be moved to running position, or the 
independent brake valve must be held in release position, 
in which positions the rotary valve of either will connect 
the application chamber pipe with the atmosphere. As 
the application chamber pressure escapes, the cylinder 
pressure will force application piston 10 to the left until 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



687 



g s^S\S\ S\\S\W^^SS'^ 




ii 

m 



APPLI- 
CATION 
CHAMBERj;^ 



4 



PRESSURE 
CHAMBER. 



v^///////// %///////////y///////// ^ 



FIG. 304. EMERGENCY 



688 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

exhaust valve i6 uncovers exhaust ports d and e, allow- 
ing brake-cylmder pressure to escape. 

Emergency. When a sudden and heavy brake-pipe 
reduction is made, as in an emergency application, the 
pressure in the pressure chamber forces application piston 
26 to the right until it strikes against the leather gasket 
beneath head 23 as shown in Fig. 304. This movement 
causes slide valve 31 to uncover port h in the bush, mak- 
ing a large opening from the pressure chamber to the 
application chamber, so that they quickly become equal- 
ized. In the emergency position of the automatic brake 
valve, the volume of the equalizing reservoir is con- 
nected to that of the application chamber. This reservoir 
volume, together with that of the pressure chamber at 
70 pounds pressure, equalizes into the application chamber 
at about 60 pounds. The dotted port m in the slide valve 
registers with port n in the seat connecting with supply 
passage a, allowing air from the main reservoir to enter 
the slide valve and application chambers. A cavity in 
the slide valve registers with port h in the seat. Port r 
in the slide valve registers with port / leading to the 
safety valve. The cavity and port r in the slide valve are 
connected by a small port, the size of which permits the 
air in the application chambers to escape a little faster 
than ports m and n can supply it, preventing the pressure 
from rising above the amount desired. 

In High-Speed Brake Service, the feed valve is regu- 
lated for no pounds brake-pipe pressure instead of 70, 
and main-reservoir pressure is 130 or 140 pounds. Un- 
der these conditions an em.ergency application raises the 
application chamber pressure to about 85 pounds, but the 
area of the small passage to port r is so proportioned 
that the flow of application-chamber pressure to the safety 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



689 



^S\\\\SSSWvSS|^VVV^ 




FIG. 305. EMERGENCY LAP 



690 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

valve is just enough greater than the supply through m, 
to decrease that pressure in practically the same time 
and manner as is done by the high-speed reducing valve, 
until it is approxim.ately 60 pounds. The application por- 
tion operates similarly to, but more quickly than, in the 
service application. 

Emergency Lap. The above conditions continue un- 
til the brake cylinder pressure equals the application- 
chamber pressure, when parts of the valve assume the 
position known as the Einergency Lap and shown in 

Fig. 305- 

The release after an emergency is the same as that 
following service applications. 

Fig. 306 shows the position the distributing valve 
parts will assume, if the application-chamber pressure is 
discharged by the independent brake valve during an 
automatic application. This results in the upper movable 
portion going to the release position, and relieving brake- 
cylinder pressure, without changing the conditions in 
either the pressure-chamber or chamber p; consequently, 
the equalizing portion does not move, until released by the 
automatic brake valve. 

Double Heading. It will be noted that in all of the 
above descriptions of the distributing valve, no refer- 
ence has been made to the double-heading pipe connec- 
tion. This is only used when the engine does not control 
the train brakes, and it then becomes an exhaust opening 
for the distributing valve when the automatic brake valve 
is on lap, and cut off from the brake pipe by the double 
cut-out cock. This will be better understood from the 
description of the pipe connections as already explained. 
The operation of the distributing valve is similar to that 
described during automatic brake applications with the 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



691 







^;<vx-/v;;g:^/ ////y,/////>;;y//^ 



FIG. 306. RELEASE POSITION 



When Locomotive Brake is released by Independent Brake Valve 
after an a'-'plication by Brake Pipe Reduction 



6Q2 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




PLAN OF 
GfiADUATiNG VAL\/E. 





3 (^ "■> 



rACSor^uuc VALvr. 



I j W ,1 





PI//V ©/• ^uae VALVC 



WMMMWMM/MWMM>. 








mmmmmmmmm 



PIG. 307. GRADUATING VALVE, EQUALIZING SLIDE 
VALVE, AND SLIDE • VALVE SEAT 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



693 



exception of the release, which is brought about by the 
equalizing piston 26 moving to the release position and 
causing exhaust cavity in the equalizing slide valve 31 




FIG. 308. DISTRIBUTING VALVE 

CONNECTIONS: 

MR — Main Reservoir Pipe; DH — Double-Heading- Pipe; AC — Ap- 

plication-Cliamber Pipe; EC — Brake-Cylinder Pipe; BP — Brake 

Pipe 



to connect ports i and ii in the slide valve seat, thereby 
permitting the pressure in the application chamber to 
escape to the atmosphere through the double heading 



694 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

pipe, the double cut-out cock, and the automatic brake 
valve. In double heading, therefore, the release of the 
distributing valve is similar to that of a triple valve. 

To rem.ove piston lO and slide valve i6, it is abso- 
lutely necessary to first remove cover 3, slide valve 5 and 
valve pin 18. 

Referring to Figs 298 and 308, the proper names 
of parts of this apparatus are as follows : 2, Body ; 3, 
Application- Valve Cover ; 4, Cover Screw ; 5, Applica- 
tion Valve; 6, Application-A^alve Spring; 7, Application- 
Cylinder Cover ; 8, Cylinder-Cover Bolt and Nut ; 9, 
Cylinder-Cover Gasket; 10, Application Piston ; 11, Pis- 
ton Follower ; 12, Packing-Leather Expander ; 13, Pack- 
ing Leather; 14, Application-Piston Nut; 15, Applica- 
tion-Piston Packing Ring; 16, Exhaust Valve; 17, Ex- 
haust-A'alve Spring; 18, AppHcation- Valve Pin; 19, 
Graduating Stem; 20, Graduating Spring; 21, Graduat- 
ing-Stem Nut; 22, L'^pper Cap Nut; 23, Equalizing Cyl- 
inder Cap; 24, Cylinder Cap Bolt and Nut; 25, Cylinder- 
Cap Gasket; 26, Equalizing Piston ; 2y, Equalizing-Pis- 
ton Packing Ring; 28, Graduating A'alve ; 29, Graduat- 
ing- Valve Spring; 31, Equalizing Slide Valve; 32, Equal- 
izing-Slide-Valve Spring; 33, Lower Cap Nut; 34, Safety 
Valve; 35, Double-Chamber Reservoir; 36, Reservoir 
Stud and Nut; 37, Reservoir Drain Plug; 38, Distribut- 
ing-Valve Drain Plug; 39, Application-A'alve-Cover 
Gasket; 40, Application Piston Cotter; 41, Distributing- 
A'alve Gasket. 

Fig. 309 is a sectional view of the safety valve which 
is a necessary part of the distributing valve. It is of an 
improved type, which insures reliability of operation. It 
is unlike the ordinary safety valve, as its construction is 
such as to cause it to close quickly with a "pop" action, 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



695 



insuring its seating firmly. It is very sensitive in opera- 
tion, and responds to very slight differences of pressure. 

The names of the parts are: 2, Body; 3, Cap Nut; 
4, Valve; 5, Stem Valve; 6, Adjusting Spring; 7, Ad- 
justing Nut. 




FIG. 309. SAFETY VALVE 

Valve 4 is held to its seat by the compression of the 
spring 6 between the stem and adjusting nut 7. When 
the pressure below valve 4 is in excess of the force ex- 
erted by the spring, it raises, being guided in its move- 
ment by the brass bush in the body 2. Ports are drilled 
in this bush; one outward through the body to the at- 
mosphere, and the other upward to the spring chamber. 



696 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

Although only one of each of these is shown in the cut, 
there are eight of the first and two of the second. As 
the valve moves upward, its lift is determined by the 
stem 5 striking the cup nut 3. It closes the vertical ports 
connecting the valve and spring chambers and opens the 
lower ports to the atmosphere. As the air pressure be- 
low valve 4 decreases, and the tension of the spring 
forces the stem and valve downward, the valve gradually 
closes the lower ports to the atmosphere, and opens those 
between the valve and spring chambers. The discharge 
air pressure then has access to the spring chamber. This 
chamber is always connected to the atmosphere by two 
small holes through the body 2 ; the air from the valve 
chamber enters more rapidly than it can escape through 
these holes, causing pressure to accumulate above the 
valve, and close it with the ''pop" action before men- 
tioned. 

Ihe adjustment of this safety valve is accomplished 
by removing cap nut 3, and screwing up or down on ad- 
justing nut 7. After the proper adjustment is made, cap 
nut 3 must be replaced and securely tightened, and the 
valve operated a few times. Particular attention must 
be given to the holes in the valve body to see that they are 
open, and that they are of the proper size, especially the 
two upper holes. 

This safety valve should be adjusted for 5J pounds. 

THE TYPE H AUTOMATIC BRAKE VALVE. 

This Brake Valve, although modeled to a consider- 
able extent upon the principles of previous valves, is 
necessarily different in detail, since it not only performs 
all the functions of such types, but also those absolutely 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



697 



necessary to obtain all the desirable operating features 
of the Distributing Valve. 

Fig. 310 is taken from a photograph of this brake 
valve, while Fig. 311 shows two views, the upper one 
being a plan view with section through the rotary- valve 
chamber, the rotary valve being removed; the lower one 
a vertical section. In these views the pipe connections 
are indicated. 



HiTil^Sa^ 




FIG. 310. TYPE H BRAKE VALVE 



Fig. 312 is a top view, showing the six positions of 
the brake-valve handle, which are, beginning at the ex- 
treme left. Release, Running, Holding, Lap, Service and 
Emergency. 



698 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




FIG. 311. 



mk BH EX 

TYPE H BRAKE VALVE 



PV 



COXXECTIOXS: 
-Feed-Valve Pipe; MR— Main-Reservoir Pipe; GO— To Gov- 
ernor- DH— Double Heading- Pipe; EX— Exhaust; AC— Appli- 
cation-Chamber Pipe; BP-Brake Pipe; GA-Duplex Air 
Gauge; ER— Equalizing Reservoir 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



699 



Fig. 313 shows two views of this valve similar to 
those of Fig. 311, with the addition of a plan or top view 
of the rotary valve. Referring to the latter, a, j and ^ are 
ports extending directly through it, the latter connecting 
with a groove in the face ; / and k are cavities in the valve 




FIG. 312 



face ; is the exhaust cavity ; x is a port in the face of 
the valve connecting with ; h is a port in the face which 
passes over cavity k and connects with exhaust cavity 0; 
n is a groove in the face. Referring to the ports in the 
rotary-valve seat, d leads to the feed-valve pipe ; b and c 
lead to the brake pipe ; g leads to chamber D ; ex is the 
exhaust opening; e is the preliminary exhaust port lead- 



7O0 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




/*ir-^/«sr 



eouALizina fifSfittwt 



FIG. 313. AUTOMATIC BRAKE VALVE 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 701 

ing to chamber D; r is the warning port leading to the 
exhaust ; p is the port leading to the pump governor ; / 
leads to the application-chamber pipe ; n leads to the 
double-heading pipe. 

In describing the operation of the brake valve, it will 
be more readily understood if the positions are taken up 
in the order in which they are most generally used, rather 
than their regular order as mentioned above. 

Running Position. This is the proper position of 
the handle to release the engine and tender brakes; also 
when the brakes are not being used, and the system is 
charged and ready for an application. In this position, 
cavity / in the rotary valve connects ports h and d in the 
valve seat, affording a large direct passage from the feed 
valve to the brake pipe, so that the latter will charge up 
as rapidly as the feed valve can supply the air, but cannot 
attain a pressure above that for which the feed valve is 
adjusted. Cavity k in the rotary valve connects ports c 
and g in the valve seat, so that chamber D, and the equal- 
izing reservoir charge uniformly with the brake pipe, 
keeping the pressures on the two sides of the equalizing 
piston equal. Port j in the rotary valve registers with 
port p in the valve seat, permitting main-reservoir pres- 
sure, which is present at all times above the rotary valve, 
to pass to the excess-pressure head of the pump governor. 
Port h in the rotary valve registers with port / in the seat 
connecting the application chamber pipe to the exhaust 
cavity ex. 

Service Position. This position gives a gradual re- 
duction of brake-pipe pressure to cause a service appli- 
cation. Port h in the rotary valve registers with port ^ 
in the valve seat, allowing air from chamber D and the 



702 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

equalizing reservoir to escape to the atmosphere through 
cavities o in the rotary valve and ex in the valve seat. 
Port e is restricted so as to make the pressure in the 
equalizing reservoir, and chamber D fall gradually. As 
all other ports are closed, the fall of pressure in chamber 
D allows the brake-pipe pressure under the equalizing 
piston to raise it, and unseat the discharge valve, allow- 
ing brake-pipe air to flow to the atmosphere. When the 
pressure in chamber D is reduced the desired amount, 
the handle is moved to the lap position, thus stopping 
any further reduction in that chamber. Air will continue 
to discharge from the brake-pipe until its pressure has 
fallen to an amount a trifle less than that retained in 
chamber D, permitting the pressure in this chamber to 
force the piston downward and stop the discharge of 
brake-pipe air. It will be seen, therefore, that the amount 
of reduction in the equalizing reservoir determines that 
in the brake pipe, regardless of the length of the train. 

Lap Position. This position is used while holding 
the brakes applied after a service application until it is 
desired either to make a further brake-pipe reduction, or 
to release them; also to prevent loss of main-reservoir 
pressure of the release of the brake in the event of a 
burst hose, a break-in-two, or the opening of the con- 
ductor's valve. Lap position is also used on all engines 
in a train that are not controlling the train brakes, as, 
with the handle in this position, port h in the rotary valve 
connects with •port u in the seat. Therefore, when the 
double cut-out cock is turned to the position which cuts 
out the brake pipe, it makes a direct opening from port / 
in the distributing valve through the double-heading pipe 
to the atmosphere, and is the passage through which the 
air escapes from the application chamber when the 
automatic brakes are being released. 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 703 

Release Position. The purpose of this position is 
to provide a large and direct passage from the main reser- 
voir to the brake pipe, to permit a rapid flow of air into 
the latter, to insure a quick release and recharging of the 
train brakes, but without releasing the engine and tender 
brakes. 

Air at main-reservoir pressure flows through port a 
in the rotary valve to port b in the valve seat and to the 
brake pipe. At the same time, port / in the rotary valve 
registers with the equalizing port g in the valve seat, per- 
mitting main-reservoir pressure to enter chamber D above 
the equalizing piston. 

In this position, port s in the rotary valve registers 
with warning port r in the seat and allows a.' small quan- 
tity of air to escape into the exhaust cavity ex, which 
makes sufficient noise to attract the engineer's attention 
to the position in which the valve handle is standing. If 
the handle is allowed to remain in this position, the brake 
system would be charged to main-reservoir pressure. To 
avoid this, the handle must be moved to Running or 
Holding Positions. The small groove in the face of the 
rotary valve which connects with port s, extends to port 
p in the valve seat, allowing main-reservoir pressure to 
flow to the excess-pressure head of the pump governor. 

Holding Position. This position is so named be- 
cause the locomotive brakes are held applied, as they are 
in release position, while the train brakes feed up to the 
feed-valve pressure. All ports register as in running 
position, except port /, which is closed. 

Therefore, the only difference between Running and 
Holding Positions is, that in the former the application 
chamber is open to the atmosphere, while in the latter it 
is not. 



704 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

Emergency Position. This position is used when 
the most prompt and heavy appHcation of the brakes 
is desired. Port x in the rotary valve registers with port 
c in the valve seat, making a large and direct communi- 
cation between the brake pipe and atmosphere through 
cavity o in the rotary valve and ex in the valve seat. 
This direct passage causes a sudden and heavy discharge 
of brake-pipe pressure, causing the triple valves and dis- 
tributing valve to go to the emergency position and apply 
the brake in the shortest possible time. 

In this position the groove n in the rotary valve con- 
nects ports g and / in the valve seat, thereby allowing 
equalizing reservoir air to flow into the application cham- 
ber. 

The oil plug 29 is placed in the top case 4, at a point 
to fix the level of the oil surrounding the rotary valve. 
Leather washer 8 prevents air in the rotary valve cham- 
ber from leaking past the rotary valve key to the at- 
mosphere. Spring 30 keeps the rotary valve key firmly 
pressed against washer 8 when no main-reservoir pres- 
sure is present. The handle 9 contains a latch 11, which 
fits into notches in the top case, so located as to indi- 
cate the different positions of the brake valve handle. 
The spring 10 back of the latch forces the latter against 
the body with sufficient pressure to distinctly indicate 
when the handle arrives at each position. 

To remove the brake valve take off nuts 27, thus 
allowing it to come away without disturbing the pipe 
bracket, or breaking any pipe joints. To take the valve 
proper apart, remove cap screws 28. 

The brake valve should be located so that the engi- 
neer can operate it from his usual position, while looking 
forward or back out of the side-cab window, and in such 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 705 

a manner that the handle will not meet with any obstruc- 
tion throughout its entire movement. 

The oil around the rotary valve furnishes thorough lu- 
brication. Valve oil should be used for this purpose. 

Fig. 313 shows all the principal parts, the proper 
names of each being as follows : 2, Bottom Case ; 3, 
Rotary- Valve Scat; 4, Top Case; 5, Pipe Bracket; 6, 
Rotary Valve ; 7, Rotary- Valve Key ; 8, Key Washer ; 9, 
Handle; 10, Handle-Latch Spring; 11, Handle Latch; 12, 
Handle-Latch Screw; 13, Handle Nut; 14, Handle Lock 
Nut; 15, Equalizing Piston; 16, Equalizing-Piston Pack- 
ing Ring; 17, Valve-Seat Upper Gasket; 18, Valve-Seat 
Lower Gasket; 19, Pipe-Bracket Gasket; 20, Small Union 
Nut; 21, Brake- Valve Tee; 22, Small Union Swivel; 23, 
Large Union Nut ; 24, Large Union Swivel ; 25, Bracket 
Stud ; 26, Bracket-Stud Nut ; 27, Bolt and Nut ; 28, Cap 
Screw; 29, Oil Plug; 30, Rotary- Valve Spring. 

THE INDEPENDENT BRAKE VALVE. 

Fig. 314 illustrates this valve, which is of the rotary 
type. Fig. 315 shows a vertical section through the cen- 
ter of the valve, and a horizontal section through the 
valve body, with the rotary valve removed, showing 
the rotary valve seat. Fig. 316 shows this valve simi- 
larly to Fig. 315, with the addition of a top view of the 
rotary valve. In these views, the pipe connections and 
positions of the handle are indicated. Port b in the seat 
leads to the supply connection from the main reservoir 
through the Reducing Valve. Port c leads to that portion 
of the application-chamber pipe which connects to the 
automatic-brake valve. Port d leads to that portion of 
the application-chamber pipe which connects the dis- 



7o6 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



tributing valve. Port h, in the center, is the exhaust port 
leading directly to the atmosphere. Exhaust cavity g in 
the rotary valve is always in communication with ex- 
haust port Ji. Groove e in the face of the valve communi- 
cates at one end with a port through the valve. This 
groove is always in communication with supply port b, 
and through the opening just mentioned air is admitted 




FIG. 314. THE INDEPENDENT jtJRAKE VALVE 



to the chamber above the rotary valve, thus keeping it 
to its seat. Port f in the rotary valve consists of two 
circular openings in the face joined by a cylindrical pas- 
sage over the top of cavity g. 

Running Position. This is the position that the 
independent brake valve should be carried in at all times 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



707 




FIG. 315. 



INTERIOR VIEW OF THE INDEPENDENT 
BRAKE VALVE 



CONNECTIONS: 
BV — Application-Chamber Pipe to Automatic Brake Valve; 
EX — Exhaust; AC — Application-Cliamber Pipe to Dis- 
tributing- Valve; MR — Reducing-- Valve Pipe 



7o8 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

when the independent brake is not in use. Port / in the 
rotary valve connects ports c and d in the valve seat, thus 
establishing communication between the application cham- 
ber of the distributing valve and port / of the automatic 
brake valve. Therefore, it will be seen that if the auto- 
matic brake valve is in running position, and the inde- 
pendent brakes applied, they can be released by return- 
ing the independent valve to running position. 

Service Position. To apply the independent brakes, 
move the brake valve to the application position ; groove 
e connects ports h and d, allowing air to flow to the ap- 
plication chamber of the distributing valve. Since the 
supply pressure to this valve is fixed by the regulation of 
the reducing valve to 45 pounds, this is the maximum 
cylinder pressure that can be obtained. 

Lap Position. This position is used to hold the in- 
dependent brakes applied after the desired cylinder pres- 
sure is obtained, at which time all communication between 
operating ports is closed. 

Release Position. This position is used to release 
the pressure from the application chamber when the auto- 
matic brake valve is not in running position. In this 
position, the offset in cavity g registers with port d, 
allowing pressure in the application chamber to flow 
through ports d, g and h to the atmosphere. 

In order to prevent leaving the handle in the release 
position, and thereby make it impossible to operate the 
locomotive brakes by the automatic brake valve, spring 
9 automatically returns handle 15 from the release to the 
running position. 

The purpose of the oil plug 20 is the same as that 
described in the automatic brake valve. 

The location of this valve should be governed by the 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



709 



23 AUTOMATIC BRAKE VALVE 

I 



exHAusr 

DISTRIBUTING VALVg 
SCRVICE, 




FIG. 316. INTERIOR VIEWS OF THE INDEPENDENT 
BRAKE VALVE 



7IO LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

same considerations as those mentioned concerning the 
automatic brake valve. The names of its parts are as fol- 
lows, referring to Fig. 316. 

2, Rotary-Valve Seat; 3, Valve Body; 4, Pipe Bracket; 
5, Rotary Valve; 6, Rotary- Valve Key; 7, Rotary- Valve 
Spring; 8, Key Washer; 9, Return-Spring; 10, Return- 
Spring Casing; 11, Casing Screw; 12, Return-Spring 
Clutch; 13, Cover; 14, Cover Screw; 15, Handle; 16, 
Handle Nut; 17, Latch Spring; 18, Latch; 19, Latch 
Screw; 20, Oil Plug; 21, Upper Gasket; 22, Lower Gas- 
ket; 23, Bracket Stud; 24, Bracket-Stud Nut; 25, Bolt 
and Nut; 26, Cap and Screw. 



THE FEED VALVE. 

This valve, Fig. 317, is a slide-valve feed valve of an 
improved type, and" with this equipment is connected 
to a pipe bracket located in the piping between the main 
reservoir and the automatic brake valve, receiving its 
supply of air from the main-reservoir pipe, and delivering 
it into the feed-valve pipe. It is for the purpose of con- 
trolling, brake-pipe pressure when the automatic brake 
valve handle is in running or holding positions. 

Figs. 318 and 319 are diagrammatic views of the 
valve and pipe bracket having the ports and operating 
parts in one plane to facilitate description. It consists of 
two sets of parts, the supply and regulating. The supply 
parts, which control the flow of air through the valve, 
consist of the supply valve 10, and its spring 11; the 
supply-valve piston 8 and ifs spring 6. The regulating 
parts consist of the regulating valve 13, regulating- valve 
spring 14, diaphragm 15, diaphragm spindle 17, regulat- 
ing handle 23. Main-reservoir air enters through port 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



711 



a, a to the supply-valve chamber B, forcing supply- valve 
piston 8 to the left, compressing piston spring 6 and caus- 
ing supply valve 10 to open port c, permitting the air to 
pass through ports c and d to the feed-valve pipe at de- 
livery, and through port e to diaphragm chamber L. 




FIG. 31 



At the same time air flows through port / in supply- 
valve piston 8 to chamber G, and through port 
h to regulating-valve chamber li. As regulating- 
valve 13 is raised from its seat, it will flow through port 
k to chamber L. When the feed-valve-pipe pressure, 
which is always present in chamber L against the dia- 



712 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



p-iragm, exceeds the pressure of regulating spring i8, 
the diaphragm will yield and permit the regulating valve 
13 to be forced to its seat, closing port k and cutting off 



DELIVERY 




riG. 318. DIAGRAM OF FEED VALVE, CLOSED 



any further flow of air from chamber G. As the air 
which continues to flow through port / will quickly equal- 
ize the pressure on both sides of piston 8, spring 6 will 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



713 



force the piston to the right, moving supply valve 10 and 
closing port c, thereby cutting off communication between 
the supply and the feed-valve pipe. 



SUPPLY 



DELIVERY 




15 16 



FIG. 319. DIAGRAM OF FEED VALVE, OPEN 



When the pressure in the feed-valve pipe falls below 
that for which the valve is adjusted, regulating spring 18 
will force the diaphragm forward, unseat regulating valve 



714 LOCOMOTIVE EXGIXEERIXG 

13, and permit the accumulated air pressure in chamber 
G to escape through port //,, chamber H, and port k to 
chamber L. This allows main-reservoir pressure in 
chamber B to force the supply valve piston 8 to left, and 
open port c, which again permits air to pass to the feed- 
valve pipe until its pressure has been restored to the 
proper amount. Since this feed valve has a' duplex ad- 
justing arrangement, it eliminates the necessity of the two 
feed valves in high, and low pressure service, as the turn- 
ing of handle 23 until its pin strikes stops 20, or 21 
changes the regulation from one predetermined brake- 
pipe pressure to another. 

To adjust this valve, slacken screw 22, which allows 
stops 20 and 21 to turn around spring box 19. Adjusting 
handle 23 should be turned until the valve closes at the 
lower brake pipe pressure desired, when stop 21 should 
be brought in contact with the handle pin, at which point 
it should be securely fastened by tightening screw 22. 
Adjusting handle 23 should then be turned until the 
higher adjustment is obtained, when stop 20 is brought 
in contact with the handle pin and securely fastened. 

The names of the parts shown in the diagram., Figs. 
318 and 319, are as follows: 2, Valve Body; 3, Pipe 
Bracket; 5, Cap Xut ; 6, Piston Spring; 7, Piston-Spring 
Tip ; 8, Supply- Valve Piston ; 9, Piston Packing Ring ; 
10, Supply Valve; 11, Supply-Valve Spring; 12, Regu- 
lating-Valve Cap; 13, Regulating A'alve; 14, Regulating- 
A'alve Spring; 15, Diaphragm; 16, Diaphragm Ring; 17, 
Diaphragm Spindle; 18, Regulating Spring; 19, Spring 
Box; 20, Upper Stop; 21, Lower Stop; 22, Stop Screw; 
23, Adjusting Handle. 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



715 



REDUCING VALVE. 

Fig-. 320 is a photograph of the exterior of this valve 
connected to its pipe bracket, the construction and opera- 




FIG. 320. REDUCING VALVE 

tion of which is the same as the feed valve just described, 
with the exception of the adjusting feature, this valve 
being designed for single adjustment only. 

THE PUMP GOVERNOR. 



view of this governor in 



Fig. 321 shows a sectional 
its normal position. By reference to the piping diagram 
in Fig. 295 it will be noted that the connection B leads to 
the boiler ; P to the air pump ; MR to the main reservoir ; 



7i6 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



ABV to the automatic brake valve; FVP to the feed- 
i^alve pipe; W is the waste-pipe connection. Steam en- 
ters at B and passes by steam valve 26 to the connection 
P and to the pump. Air from the m.ain reservoir flows 




FIG. 321. PUMP GOVERNOR 



through the automatic brake valve to the connection 
marked ABV into chamber d below diaphragm 52. Air 
from the leed-valve pipe enters at the connection FVP 
and passes to the chamber above the diaphragm, adding 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 717 

to the pressure of regulating spring 51 in holding it 
down. As this spring is adjusted to a compression of 
about 20 pounds, the diaphragm will be held down until 
the main reservoir-pressure in chamber d exceeds the 
feed-valve pipe pressure by this amount. At such time, 
diaphragm 52 will raise, unseating its pin valve, and allow 
air to flow through port b to the chamber above the gov- 
ernor piston, forcing it downward, compressing its spring 
and seating steam valve 26. When main-reservoir pres- 
sure in chamber d is reduced, the combined spring and 
air pressures above the diaphragm force it down, seating 
its pin valve. The pressure in port b, and the chamber 
above the governor piston, which is always able to escape 
a little from the vent port c, will then escape to the atmos- 
phere and allow the piston spring, and steam pressure 
below valve 26, to raise it, and the governor piston to the 
position shown. The connection from the main reservoir 
to chamber d is open only when the automatic brake-valve 
handle is in release, running or holding positions ; in the 
other positions it is closed, at which times this governor 
head is cut out of action. The connection marked MR 
in the maximum pressure head is always in communica- 
tion with the main reservoir, so that when the excess 
pressure head is cut out by the brake valve, this head 
controls the pump. When main-reservoir pressure in 
chamber a exceeds the compression of adjusting spring 
41, diaphragm 42 will raise its pin valve and allow air to 
flow through port b to the chamber above the governor 
piston, controlling the pump as above described. 

As each governor head has a vent port c, from which 
air escapes whenever pressure is present in port b, to 
avoid an unnecessary waste of air, one of these should 
be plugged. 



7i8 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

To adjust this governor, remove the cap nut and turn 
adjusting nut 50 until the compression of spring 51 is 
equal to the excess of pressure desired. - 



' QUESTIONS 

949. In v^^hat respect does the new ET. Locomotive 
brake equipment differ m.aterially from the standard auto- 
matic and straight air brake? 

950. Can the ET. equipment be applied to any loco- 
motive; no matter what kind of service? 

951. Mention one of the principal advantages in con- 
nection with the design of the valves. 

952. What are the three important advantages con- 
nected with its operation? 

953. What can be said regarding the manipulation of 
the ET. brake, and the automatic and straight air brake? 

954. In what position should the handle be, when not 



955. When it is desired to apply the locomotive and 
train brakes, how must the automatic brake valve handle 
be moved? 

956. Describe the method of releasing the train brakes. 

957. Describe the method of making an emergency 
appHcation. 

958. In order to make a smooth and accurate, two 
application passenger stop, what should be done? 

959. Describe the proper method of making and re- 
leasing an independent application. 

960. How should the independent brake be operated, 
when handling long trains on the road, or in switching 
service ? 



QUESTIONS 719 

961. How ma the engine brakes only be released, 
and still leave the train brakes applied ? 

962. What should be done with the train brakes be- 
fore detaching the engine? 

963. Should the automatic brakes be used to hold a 
train, or engine standing on a grade, for any length of 
time? 

964. What is the safest way to hold a train standing 
on a grade? 

965. Describe the proper method of stopping a de- 
scending train, and then holding it with the independent 
brake. 

966. In what position should the independent brake 
valve handle be left when the engine is standing at a 
coal chute or water plug? 

967. In what position should the handle of the auto- 
matic brake valve be placed in case of an accidental apx 
plication — such as a bursted hose, or break in two of 
train? - 

968. In case there are two or more engines in a train, 
what should be done with the air equipment of each one, 
except the one from which the brakes are being handled ? 

969. What should be done with the brake equipment 
on the engine, before leaving the roundhouse? 

970. Name the various parts of the equipment, and the 
purpose of each. 

971. Name the different parts of the piping apper- 
taining to the ET equipment. 

972. What are the functions of the main reservoir cut- 
out cock ? 

973. In what two ways does the automatic brake valve 
receive air from the main reservoir? 



720 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

974. How many connections has the distributing 
valve ? 

975. What are the functions of the first three of these 
connections ? 

976. For what purpose are the other two? 

977. What is the important feature of the ET brake 
equipment ? 

978. Describe briefly what takes place within the dis- 
tributing valve during an independent application. 

979. W^hat causes independent lap? 

980. Between what two pressures does the application 
piston of the distributing valve vibrate? 

981. How is the pressure maintained in the brake 
cylinders during an application ? 

982. How is independent release accomplished? 

983. How may independent lap be again resumed? 

- 984. What parts are brought into action during auto- 
matic operation? 

985. Describe in general terms what occurs within 
the distributing valve during a service application of the 
automatic brake. 

986. Upon what does the amount of pressure in the 
application chamber of the distributing valve depend ? 

987. What causes the position known as service lap? 

988. Does the pressure maintaining feature also apply 
to automatic application ? 

989. Are the engine brakes released when the auto- 
matic brake valve is placed in release position? 

990. What, then, maist be done in order to release the 
engine brakes? 

991. What takes place within the distributing valve 
during an emergency application ? 



QUESTIONS 721 

992. What pressures are carried for high speed brake 
service ? 

993. Under these conditions, what pressure is attained 
in the application chamber? 

994. What conditions are necessary to cause the parts 
of the valve to assume the position known as emergency 
lap? 

995. What is the purpose of the double-heading pipe 
connection ? 

996. Describe the action of the safety valve. 

997. How is this valve adjusted, and for what pres- 
sure ? 

998. In what respect does type H automatic brake 
valve differ from previous types? 

999. When should the handle be kept in running posi- 
tion? 

1000. What does service position give? 
looi. For what purpose is lap position used? 

1002. What is the purpose of release position? 

1003. What results follow, when the valve is placed 
in holding position? 

1004. Explain the difference between running and 
holding position. 

1005. When is emergency position used? 

1006. Of what type is the independent brake valve? 

1007. In what position should this valve be carried 
when not in use? 

1008. Describe the service position of this valve. 

1009. When is lap position used for the independent 
brake valve? 

loio. When is release position used? 
loii. What type of valve, and for what purpose is the 
feed valve? 



722 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

1012. Describe the construction and operation of the 
reducing valve. 

1013. Describe the construction and operation of the 
pump governor. 

1014. What is the "Dead Engine Feature" ? 

1015. Of what parts does it consist? 

1016. How is the air for operating the brakes on a 
dead engine suppHed? 

10 1 7. Describe briefly the route that the air takes 
under such conditions. 

1018. What is the function of the strainer? 



THE ''DEAD ENGINE" FEATURE. 

The "Dead Engine" feature shown in Fig. 295 is 
for the operation of the locomotive brakes when the 
pump on a locomotive in a train is inoperative through 
being broken down, or by reason of no steam. Fig. 322 
shows the combined strainer, check valve, and choke 
fitting. As these parts are not required at other times, a 
cut-out cock is provided. This cock should be kept 
closed except under the conditions just mentioned. The 
air for operating the brakes on such a locomotive must 
then be supplied through the brake pipe from the loco- 
motive operating the train brakes. 




FIG. 322. COMBINED AIR STRAINER AND CHECK VALVE 



With the cut-out cock open, air from the brake pipe 
enters at BP, Fig. 322, passes through the curled hair 
strainer, lifts check valve 4, held to its seat by a strong 
spring, passes through the choke bushing, and out nt 
MR to the main-reservoir, thus providing pressure for 
operating the brakes on this locomotive. The double- 

723 



724 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

heading cock should be closed, and the handle of each 
brake valve should be in running position. Where ab- 
sence of water in the boiler, or other reason, justifies 
keeping the maximum braking power of such a loco- 
motive lower than the standard, this can be accomplished 
by reducing the adjustment of the safety valve on the 
distributing valve. It can also be reduced at will by the 
independent brake valve. 

The strainer protects the check valve and choke from 
dirt. Spring 2 over the check valve insures this valve 
seating and, while assuring an ample pressure to operate 
the locomotive brakes, keeps the main-reservoir pressure 
somewhat lower than the brake-pipe pressure, thereby 
reducing any leakage from the former. The choke pre- 
vents a sudden drop in brake-pipe pressure and the ap- 
plication of the train brakes, as would otherwise occur 
with an uncharged main reservoir cut in to a charged 
brake pipe. In this, it operates similarly to the feed 
groove in a triple valve. 



Modern conditions have created new braking prob- 
lems. The old and well-known (Type H) quick-action 
freight triple valve was designed to meet the require- 
ments of the time wdien 50-car trains, 30-ton capacity 
cars, and moderate speeds were maximum conditions. 
But the increased train lengths, speeds, and car capacities 
of the present day, have demanded certain modifications 
to meet these, and anticipated, requirements. 

The Westinghouse Air Brake Company has developed 
and perfected a new Quick-Action Freight Triple Valve, 
designated as Type "K," which facilitates train move- 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 725 

ments, increases the factor of safety in handling trains, 
and reduces damage to lading and equipment, in so far 
as they are affected by air-brake operation. 

The K triple valve embodies every feature of the old 
type, and in addition three new ones called the Quick- 
Serzice, Retarded Release and Uniform Recharge. It 
not only works in perfect harmony with the old valves, 
but greatly Improves the action of the latter when they 
are mixed in the same train. They have many parts in 
common, are interchangeable, and the old can be con- 
verted into the new without the loss of many parts. 

The Quick-Service Feature, which produces a quick 
serial operation of the brakes in service applications, has 
been obtained by utilizing the well known principle of 
quick-action in emergency applications, by which each 
triple valve augments the brake-pipe reduction by dis- 
charging brake-pipe air into its brake cylinder. The es- 
sential difference is that in emergency, the maximum 
braking power is always obtained with both the old and 
new valves, while with the new valve, the power of its 
quick-service application is always under complete con- 
trol, and is governed by the reduction made at the brake 
valve. The result is that the quick-service feature 
insures the prom.pt and reliable response of every brake ; 
eliminates the undesirable^ use of emergency applications 
where a flag, an unforeseen danger ahead, or the need of 
making an accurate stop, frequently necessitates such an 
application with the old standard freight-brake equip- 
ment; reduces the possible loss of air due to flowing 
back through the feed grooves from the auxiliary reser- 
voir to the brake pipe, or by the leakage grooves in the 
cylinders; and gives a more uniform application of the 
brakes throughout the train. 



726 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

The Retarded-Release Feature, which insures prac- 
tically a simultaneous release of all brakes, has been ef- 
fected by automatically restricting the exhaust of air 
from the brake cylinders at the head end of the train, and 
allowing all others to release freely. To obtain this re- 
sult requires merely the usual correct method of operat- 
ing the brake valve, the retarded release being due to the 
quick and considerable rise in brake-pipe pressure which 
the release position of the brake valve can cause for 
about 25 or 30 cars from the locomotive. 

The Uniform Recharge of the auxiliary reservoirs 
throughout the train is obtained by the fact that when 
the triple valve is in retarded-release position, the charg- 
ing ports between brake pipe and auxiliary reservoir are 
automatically restricted. As long as the release of brake- 
cylinder exhaust is retarded, the recharge is restricted, 
and since the one feature depends upon the other, the re- 
stricted recharge operates only on the first twenty-five 
or thirty cars back of the engine, the remaining brakes 
recharging norm.ally, thus insuring practically a simul- 
taneous recharge of all brakes in the train. This fea- 
ture not only avoids the overcharge of the auxiliary 
reservoirs on the front cars and the subsequent undesired 
reapplication of their brakes, but by drawing less air 
from the brake pipe permits the increase in brake-pipe 
pressure to travel more rapidly to the rear for releasing 
and recharging those brakes. 

The new valve is at present manufactured in two sizes, 
the '*K-i" for use with 8-inch freight-car brake cylinders, 
corresponding with the H-i (F-36), and the "K-2" with 
lo-inch freight-car brake cylinders, corresponding with 
the H-2 (H-49). The K-i will bolt to the same reser- 
voir as the F-36, and the K-2 as the H-49. Each valve 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



727 



is marked with its designation on the side of the valve 
body, and the K-2 may be distinguished from the K-i 
by the fact that it has three, as compared with two, bolt 
holes in the reservoir flange. Also, in order to distin- 
guish the type K valves from the old standard type, their 
exterior being similar when they are attached to the 




FIG. 323. THE TYPE "K" FREIGHT TRIPLE VALVE 



auxiliary reservoir, a lug is cast on the top of the valve 
body, as shown in Fig, 323. This enables anyone to 
locate them at once. 

Fig. 324 is a vertical cross section of this valve, and 
the names of the various parts are as follows : 



^2"^ 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



2, Valve Body ; 3, Slide Valve ; 4, Piston ; 5, Piston- 
Packing Ring; 6, Slide- Valve Spring; 7, Graduating 
Valve; 8, Emergency Piston; 9, Emergency- Valve Seat; 
10, Emergency Valve; 11, Emergency- Valve Rubber 
Seat; 12, Check-Valve Spring; 13, Check- Valve Case; 
14, Check- Valve-Case Gasket; 15, Check Valve; 16, Air 
Strainer; 17, Union Nut; 18, Union Swivel; 19, Cylinder 
Cap; 20, Graduating-Stem Nut; 21, Graduating Stem; 




FIG. 324. THE K-2 TRIPLE VALVE 



22, Graduating Spring; 23, Cylinder-Cap Gasket; 24, 
Bolt and Nut; 25, Triple-Valve Cap Screw; 26, Drain 
Plug; 27, Union Gasket; 28, Emergency- Valve Nut; 29, 
Retarding-Device Bracket ; 30, Retarding-Device Screw ; 
31, Retarding-Device Stem; '^2, Retarding-Device 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 729 

Washer; 33, Retarding-Device Spring; 34, Retarding- 
Device-Stem Pin; 35, Graduating- Valve Spring. 

Figure 325 shows the relative position of the ports 
and cavities in the sHde vah^e, graduating valve, and 
slide-valve seat of the K-2 Triple Valve. As it is dif- 
ficult to show all of these in a single section, diagram- 
matic cuts of the valve in each of the principal positions 
have been used, all ports and passages having been so 
arranged as to place them in one plane. In preparing 
these cuts, the actual proportion, and mechanical con- 
struction of the valve has been disregarded for the pur- 
pose of making the connections of ports, and operation, 
more easily understood. 



EXPLANATION OF FIGURES 324 AND 325. 

Referring to Figure 324, the branch from the brake 
pipe connects at union swivel 18. The retarding-device 
bracket 29 projects into the auxiliary reservoir, and by 
its construction free communication exists between the 
auxiliary reservoir and chamber R, in which the slide- 
valve 3 and graduating valve 7 operate. The retarding- 
device stem 31, through its extension into chamber R, 
and the action of its spring 33, forms the stop against 
which the stem of piston 4 strikes when it moves to the 
release position ( from right to left in the cut, it being 
shown in full-release position). 

The opening marked "To Brake Cylinder" comes op- 
posite one end of the tube which leads through the 
auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylinder, when the valve 
is bolted in place on the end of the auxiliary reservoir. 
This opening in the triple valve leads to chamber X 



730 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



r 



FACE VIEW 

GRADUATIN8 VALYC . 



mi 



pOo- 



FACE VIEW 


3 g "•'•■•"■'^ 


-/ 



TOP VIEW 

SLIDE VALVE. 



^-^^-^^^^^^-^^^^^^x-^^^^ 



"D or' 



1 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 



SLIDE VALVE BUSH . 



FIG. 325. SLIDE VALVE, GRADUATING VALVE, AND SLIDE- 
VALVE SEAT OF K-2 TRIPLE VALVE 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 731 

over the emergency valve 10, and under the emergency 
piston 8. Also, it leads through port r to the seat under 
slide valve 3 (Fig. 325). The emergency piston 8 and 
the parts below it are the same as in the older quick- 
action freight triple valve. Port y (shown by dotted 
lines) connects chamber Y, between check valve 12 and 
emergency valve 10, with port y in the valve seat (Fig. 
325)- 

Port t connects the slide-valve seat with the chamber 
above emergency piston 8. Port p is the exhaust port 
to the atmosphere. Port ; in the slide valve begins at 
the face, as shown by the top view, Fig. 325, and passes 
around other ports in the valve to a smaller opening in 
the top. (Note: — This port ;' does not exist in the K-i 
Triple Valve, as will be explained later.) Port is sim- 
ilarly arranged, except that openings in top and bottom 
are alike in size. Port q runs directly through the slide 
valve, but is sm.aller at the top than at the face of the 
valve, and the smaller part is out of center with the 
larger part. Ports ^ and z run through the valve and 
connect with cavities in the face ; port z also has a cavity 
at the top. 

The face view of the graduating valve shows that 
it has a small cavity v. This valve is of the slide-valve 
type, and it seats on the top of the slide valve, where it 
controls the upper ends of ports z, q, and ;. The 
purpose of the cavity v is to connect the upper ends of 
ports and q in a service application, as explained in 
detail later. 

As shown by the face view of the slide valve, n is a 
long cavity having a narrow extension at the right hand 
end. This cavity connects the ports through which the 
air escapes from the brake cylinder in releasing. Port 



732 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

b is cut diagonally from the face till it just cuts into the 
edge, at the top of the slide valve. It admits auxiliary- 
reservoir pressure to port t in an emergency application. 
With this explanation, and by occasional reference 
from the diagrammatic views, to those in Fig. 325, the 
same ports being lettered alike, a clear understanding 
will be obtained of both the operation and actual ar- 
rangement of ports of the triple valves. 



FULL RELEASE AND CHARGING POSITION. 

Fig. 326 is a diagrammatic view of the triple valve in 
this position. Air from the brake pipe flows through pas- 
sage e, cylinder cap /, and ports g to chamber h; thence 
through feed groove i, now open, to chamber R above 
the slide valve, which is always in free communication 
with the auxiliary reservoir. The feed groove i is of the 
same dimension as that of the old standard H-i (F-36) 
triple valve, which is designed to properly charge the 
auxiliary reservoir of an 8-inch brake cylinder, and pre- 
vent any appreciable amount of air from feeding back 
into the brake pipe from the auxiliary reservoir during 
an application. For this reason, the feed groove of the 
K-2 triple valve is made the same size as the R^-i, so 
that it is necessary in the K-2 triple, to increase the 
charging port area, through which the air can feed into 
the auxiliary reservoir, sufficiently to enable it to handle 
the greater volume of the auxiliary reservoir of a lo-inch 
brake cylinder. In order to do this, the small port / is 
added to the slide valve of the K-2 triple valve only ; this 
port registers with port y in the slide-valve seat, when 
in the full release position. Air then passes from cham- 
ber Y, through ports y and ; to chamber R, and the aux- 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



733 



iliary reservoir. Brake-pipe air in a raises check valve 15 
and supplies chamber Y with air as fast as it is required. 
Port / is so proportioned that the rate of charging the 
auxiliary reservoir of a lo-inch brake cylinder is made 
practicalh' the same as that of the 8-inch, which in full 



my/////////// / //m 




FIG. 326. FULL-RELEASE AND CHARGING POSITION 



release is fed through the fe^ groove i only. In the 
following description, the K-2 triple valve only is re- 
ferred to ; the operation of the K-i is exactly the same 
except for the absence of port /. 

Air flows from the brake pipe to the auxiliary reser- 
voir until their pressures become equal, when the latter 
is then fully charged. 



734 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



QUICK-SERVICE POSITION. 

To make a service application of the brakes, air pres- 
sure is gradually reduced in the brake pipe, and thereby 
in chamber Ji. As soon as the remaining pressure in the 



W//// /// //// / ////M 




FIG. 327. QUICK SERVICE POSITION 

auxiliary reservoir and chamber R becomes enougli 
greater than that in chamber //, to overcome the friction 
of the piston 4 and graduating valve 7, these two move 
to the left until the shoulder on the end of the piston 
stem strikes against the right-hand end of the slide valve, 
vy^hen it also is moved to the left until the piston strikes 
the graduating stem 21, which is held in its place by 
the compression of the graduating spring 22. The parts 
of the valve are then in the position shown in Fig. 2^2"]. 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 735 

The first movement of the graduating valve closes the 
feed groove /, preventing air from feeding back into the 
brake pipe from the auxiliary reservoir, and also opens 
the upper end of port z in the slide valve, while the 
movement of the latter closes the connection between 
port r and the exhaust port p, and brings port z into par- 
tial registration with port r, in the slide valve seat. Aux- 
iliary-reservoir pressure then flows through port z in the 
slide valve, and port r in the seat to the brake cylinder. 

At the same time, the first movement of the graduat- 
ing valve connected the tw^o ports and q in the slide 
valve, by the cavity v in the graduating valve, and the 
movement of the slide valve brought port o to 
register with port y in the slide-valve seat, and port q 
with port t. Consequently, the air pressure in chamber 
Y flows through ports y, 0, v, q and t, thence around the 
emergency piston 8, which fits loosely in its cylinder, to 
chamber X and the brake cylinder. When the pressure 
in chamber Y has reduced below the brake-pipe pressure 
remaining in a, the check valve raises, and allows brake- 
pipe air to flow by the check valve and through the ports 
above mentioned to the brake cylinders. The size of 
these ports is so proportioned that the flow of air from 
the brake pipe to the top of emergency piston 8, is not 
sufficient to force the latter downward, and thus cause an 
emergency application, but at the same time takes con- 
siderable air from the brake pipe, thus increasing the 
rapidity with which the brake-pipe reduction travels 
through the train. 

With the ordinary quick action triple valve in a serv- 
ice application, all of the brake-pipe reduction has to 
be made at the brake valve, and the resulting drop in 
pressure passes back through the train at a rate depend- 



736 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

ing on its length, size of brake pipe, number of bends 
and corners, etc., which cause friction and resistance ; 
also a much heavier application of head than of rear 
brakes is caused at the beginning of the application, 
thereby running the slack in, which is liable at low 
speeds to be followed by the slack running out suddenly 
when the rear brakes do apply, causing loss of time and 
difficulty in making quick slow downs and accurate stops, 
and, with very long trains, results in such serious losses 
through leakage grooves, and feed grooves as to lose 
much braking power and even prevent some brakes from 
applying. With this new triple valve, only a small part 
of the reduction is made at the brake valve, while each 
triple acts momentarily as a brake valve to increase the 
reduction under each car, thereby rendering the resist- 
ance and friction in the brake pipe of much less effect, 
and hastening the application throughout the train. This 
is called the "Quick-Service" feature, and by means of 
it the rapidity of a full service application on a 50-car 
train is increased about fifty per cent. The rapid reduc- 
tion of brake-pipe pressure moves the main piston 4 
quickly to the service position, and cuts off any flow back 
from the auxiliary reservoir through the feed groove to 
the brake pipe ; it rapidly drives the brake-cylinder piston 
beyond the leakage groove, and prevents loss of air 
through it; and yet permits applying with as moderate 
a brake force as desired. It also greatly reduces the 
brake-pipe reduction necessary at the brake valve for a 
certain brake-cylinder pressure, due to the fact (i) that 
part of the reduction takes place at each triple valve, and 
(2) that the air taken from the brake pipe into the brake 
cylinder gives a little higher pressure than if the aux- 
iliary-reservoir pressure alone were admitted, thus re- 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



737 



quiring a smaller brake-pipe reduction for the same cylin- 
der pressure. 



FULL-SERVICE POSITION. 



With short trains, the brake-pipe volume, being com- 
paratively small, will reduce more rapidly for a certain 
reduction at the brake valve than with long trains. 



W/////MM///M 




FIG. 328. PULL SERVICE POSITION 



Under such circumstances the added reduction at each 
triple valve by the quick-service feature, might bring 
about so rapid a brake-pipe reduction as to cause quick 
action and an em.ergency application, when only a light 
application was intended. (The emergency application is 
explained later.) But this is automatically prevented 



738 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

by the triple valve itself. From Fig. 327 it will be noted 
that in the quick-service position, port z in the slide valve 
and port r in the seat do not fully register. Neverthe- 
less, the opening is sufficient to allow the air to flow 
from the auxiliary reservoir to the brake-cylinder with 
sufficient rapidity to reduce the pressure in the auxiliary 
reservoir as fast as the pressure is reducing in the brake 
pipe, when the train is of considerable length. But if 
the brake-pipe reduction is more rapid than that of the 
auxiliary, the difference in pressures on the two sides of 
piston 4 soon becomes sufficient to slightly compress the 
graduating spring, and move the slide valve to the posi- 
tion shown in Fig. 328, called ''Full Serziccf In this 
position, quick service port y is closed, so that no air 
flows from the brake pipe to the brake cylinder; the 
brake-pipe reduction being sufficiently rapid, there is no 
need of the additional quick-service reduction, so the 
triple valve cuts it out. Also, ports z and r are fully open, 
and allow the auxiliary-reservoir pressure to reduce more 
rapidly, so as to keep pace with the more rapid brake- 
pipe reduction. 



LAP POSITION. 

When the brake-pipe reduction ceases, air continues 
to flow from the auxiliary reservoir through ports z and 
r to the brake cylinder, until the pressure in the chamber 
R becomes enough less than that of the brake pipe to 
cause piston 4, and graduating valve 7 to move to the 
right until the shoulder on the piston stem strikes the left- 
hand end of slide valve 3. As the friction of piston and 
graduating valve is much less than that of the slide valve, 
the difference in pressure which will move the piston and 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



739 



the graduating valve, will not be sufficient to move all 
three ; consequently, the piston stops in the position shown 
in Fig. 329. This movement has caused the graduating 
valve to close port -cr, thus cutting off any further flow of 
air from the auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylinder. 
Consequently, no further change in air pressures can oc- 
cur, and this position is called ''Lap/' because all ports are 
lapped, — that is, closed. 



'^2mimy////////y\ 







FIG. 32 J 



LAP POSITION 



If it is desired to make a heavier application, a further 
reduction of the brake-pipe pressure is made, and the 
operation described above repeated, until the auxiliary 
reservoir and brake C3dinder pressures become equal, 



740 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

after which any further brake-pipe reduction is only a 
waste of air. About twenty pounds brake-pipe reduction 
will give this equalization. 



RETARDED RELEASE AND CHARGING POSITION. 

The K triple valve has two release positions, full-re- 
lease and retarded-release. Which one its parts will move 
to when the train brakes are released, depends upon how 
the brake-pipe pressure is increased ; if slowly, it will be 
full release, and if quickly and considerably, it will be re- 
tarded-release. It is well known that in a freight train, 
when the engineer releases the brakes, that the rapidity 
with which the brake-pipe pressure increases on any car 
depends on the position of the car in the train. Those cars 
towards the front, receiving the air first will have their 
brake-pipe pressure raised more rapidly than those in the 
rear. With the old standard apparatus, this is due to two 
things: (i) the friction in the brake pipe; (2) the fact 
that the auxiliary reservoirs in the front at once begin to 
recharge, thus tending to reduce the pressure head by ab- 
sorbing a quantity of air, and holding back the flow from 
front to rear of the train. The retarded-release feature 
of this new triple valve overcomes the second point men- 
tioned, taking advantage of the first while doing so. The 
friction of the brake pipe causes the pressure in chamber 
h to build up more rapidly on triple valves towards the 
front than those in the rear. As soon as its pressure is 
enough greater than the auxiliary-reservoir pressure, re- 
maining in chamber R after the application above de- 
scribed, to overcome the friction of piston, graduating 
valve, and slide valve, all three are moved toward the right 
until the piston stem strikes the retarding-device stem, 31. 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 



741 



The latter is held in position by the retarding-device 
spring, 33. If the rate of increase of the brake-pipe 
pressure is small, as, for example, when the car is near 
the rear of the train, the triple valve parts will remain in 
this position, as shown in Fig. 326, the brakes will release 
and the auxiliary reservoirs recharge as described under 



m 

BP a 




FIG. 330. RETARDED-RELEASE POSITION 



"Full Release and Charging.'^ If, however, the triple 
valve is near the head of the train, and the brake-pipe 
pressure builds up more rapidly than the auxiliary reser- 
voir can recharge, the excessive pressure in chamber h 
will cause the piston to compress retarding-device spring, 
33, and move the triple-valve parts to the position shown 
in Fig. 330. 



742 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

Exhaust cavity n in the sHde valve now connects port r 
leading to the brake cylinder, with port p to the atmos- 
phere, and the brake will release ; but as the small ex- 
tension of cavity ;/ (see Fig. 325) is over port p, discharge 
of air from the brake cylinder to the atmosphere is quite 
slow. In this way the brakes on the front end of the train 
require a longer time to release than those on the rear. 
This feature is called the "Retarded Release," and al- 
though the triple valves near the locomotive commence 
to release before those in the rear, as in the case with the 
H-triple valve, yet the exhaust of brake-cylinder pres- 
sure in retarded-release position is sufficiently slow to 
allow the rear brakes to release first. This permits of 
releasing the brakes on very long trains at low speeds 
without danger of a severe shock or break in two. 

At the same time, the back of the piston is in contact 
with the end of the slide-valve bush and, as these two 
surfaces are ground to an accurate fit, their contact ef- 
fectually cuts off communication between chambers Ji and 
R through feed groove /, preventing air from feeding 
through from the brake pipe to the auxiliary reservoir by 
this path. Also, port / in the slide valve registers with 
port V in the slide valve seat, and pressure in chamber Y 
can flow through ports y and / to the chamber R and the 
auxiliary reservoir. Chamber Y is supplied with air 
under these circumstances by the check valve 15 raising 
and allowing brake-pipe air to flow^ past it. The area of 
port / is about half that of feed groove /, so that the rate 
that the auxiliary reservoir will recharge is much less 
than when the triple valve is in the full-release position. 

As the auxiliary-reservoir pressure rises, and the pres- 
sures on the two sides of piston 4 become nearly equal, 
retarding-device spring 31 forces the piston, slide valve, 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 743 

graduating valve, and retarding device stem back to the 
full release position shown in Fig. 326, when the remain- 
der of the release and recharging will take place as de- 
scribed above under "Full Release and Charging." 

These features of the new valve are always available, 
even when mixed in trains with the old standard, the 
beneficial results being in proportion to the number of 
new valves present. 



EMERGENCY POSITION. 

Emergency Position is the same with the K triple valve 
as with the H type. Quick action is caused by a sudden 
and considerable reduction in brake-pipe pressure, no mat- 
ter how caused. This fall in brake-pipe pressure causes 
the difference in pressures on the two sides of piston 4 
to increase very rapidly, so that the friction of the piston, 
slide valve and graduating valve is quickly and greatly 
overcome, and they move to the left with such force that 
when the piston strikes the graduating stem, it compresses 
graduating spring 22, forcing back the stem and spring, 
until the piston seats firmly against the gasket 23, as 
shown in Fig. 331. The movement of the slide valve 
opens port t in the slide-valve seat, and allows auxiliary 
reservoir pressure to flow to the top of emergency piston 
8, forcing the latter downward and opening emergency 
valve 10. The pressure in chamber Y, being instantly 
relieved, allows brake-pipe air to raise the check valve 15 
and flow rapidly through chambers Y and X to the brake 
cylinder, until brake-cylinder, and brake-pipe pressures 
equalize, when both check valve and emergency valve are 
forced to their seats by the spring in the former, prevent- 
ing the air in the cylinders from escaping back into the 



744 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



brake pipe again. At the same time port s in the s) an 
valve registers with port r in the shde-valve seat, and al- 
lows auxiliary-reservoir pressure to flow to the brake 
C3'linder. But the size of ports ^ and r is such that very 
little air gets through them before the brake pipe has 
stopped venting into the brake cylinder. This sudden 
discharge of brake-pipe air into the brake cylinder has 
the same effect on the next triple valve as would be caused 



W////////////MM 




FIG. 331. EMERGENCY POSITION 



by a similar discharge of brake-pipe air to the atmosphere. 
In this way each triple valve applies the next, thus giving 
the quick and full application of all brakes, made heavier 
than full service application through the greater amount 
of brake-pipe air admitted to the brake cylinders. 



ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 745 

The rapidity with which the brakes apply throughout 
the train is so much increased, that in a 50-car train it 
requires less than three seconds ; the brake-cylinder pres- 
sure is also increased approximately twenty per cent. 

The- release after an emergency is effected in exactly 
the same manner as after a service application, but re- 
quires a longer time, owing to the higher brake-cylinder 
pressures and lower brake-pipe pressures. 

To change a standard type H triple valve to the type 
K, it is necessary to add the retarded- release feature, and 
to make the necessary changes in the controlling valves, 
body, and check-valve case. 

MANIPULATION. 

No special instructions are required by the engineers to 
handle trains partially, or wholly fitted with the K triple 
valve. The automatic brake valve should be handled as 
good practice requires with the H triple valve. Some of 
the most important details are as follows : 

Make the terminal brake tests, and check the results 
indicated by noting how well the brakes hold in the first 
running application, and be governed accordingly in sub- 
sequent applications. 

Before attempting to release have an ample excess 
pressure for the length of train, and in releasing leave the 
handle of the automatic brake valve in release position 
until the rear brakes have had time to release. 

As return to running position will cause triple valves 
in retarded-release position to change to full-release posi- 
tion, the brake-valve handle should not be moved from 
release too soon. However, with short trains the usual 
early return to running position will prevent unnecessary 
retardation of release. 



746 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

I 

QUESTIONS 

1019. What are the principal advantages possessed by 
the Type "K Triple Valve over the older Types"? 

1020. Describe the Quick service feature. 

1 02 1. How is this feature produced? 

1022. What conditions are secured by the Retarded 
release feature? 

1023. How are the auxiliary reservoirs. uniformly re- 
charged throughout the train? 

1024. How many sizes of the K valve are at present 
made? 

1025. How may the K-2 valve be distinguished from 
the K-i ? 

1026. Mention the principal disadvantages attending 
a service application with the ordinary quick action triple 
valve. 

1027. Are these conditions present with the K Triple 
Valve? 

1028. Describe briefly full service position. 

1029. What conditions are present with lap position? 

1030. How are the two release positions of the K 
Triple Valve designated? 

103 1. What conditions control the position of full re- 
lease ? 

1032. How is retarded release accomplished? 

1033. Is there any difference in emergency position, 
whether with the K Triple Valve, or with the H Type? 

1034. What length of time is required for an applica- 
tion throughout a train of 50 cars with the K Triple 
Valve? 



QUESTIONS 747 

1035. What changes are necessary to convert a type 
H Triple Valve to Type K? 

1036. What are three important rules to be observed 
by engineers in the handling of trains partially, or wholly 
equipped with the K Triple Valve ? 



WALSCHAERT VALVE GEAR— GENERAL 
DESCRIPTION. 

The motion of the valve, as shown in Fig. 332 is de^ 
rived both from the crosshead, and the eccentric crank 
from a driving axle. The crosshead connection imparts 
the lap and lead at the extremities of the stroke, v^^hen 
the eccentric crank is in its middle position. The eccen- 
tric crank in this position imparts its fastest movement 
to the valve to give a very quick opening. The crosshead 
motion in advancing from the dead point effects an ap- 
proximate uniformity in the combined motion given to 
the valve, as if it was derived from a single crank or ec- 
centric set with an angle of advance corresponding to 
the lap and lead. The valve motion may therefore be 
graphically illustrated in the same manner as that of the 
Stephenson motion, with a circle representing the path of 
the eccentric, the diameter of which is equal to the travel 
of the valve, and the valve movements may be determined 
in the same way by any of the well-known m.ethods of 
Professor Zeuner and others, as illustrated on another 
page. It will be observed that the only apparent variation 
due to this gear is that brought about by the invariable 
lead. 

The Walschaert motion, as usually constructed, docs 
not lend itself as freely to adjustment as does the Stephen- 
son motion with independent eccentrics, and for this 
reason it is not as liable to get out of adjustment. It 
must be correctly laid out in the design and correctly fitted 
up. The importance of this cannot be overestimated. The 

748 



WALSCHAERT VALVE GEAR 



749 




<1 ■ 



750 LOCO^IOTIVE EXGIXEERING 

various points must be carefully plotted in order to give 
the best results in the combination movement of the parts 
of the motion. The movements of the motion involve 
such complications in plotting as to render the complete 
plotting of all too laborious for every new design, and for 
this reason the ust of an adjustable m.odel is very de- 
sirable in designing this gear. However, with complete 
knowledge of the nature of the gear, simple methods and 
formulae may be used to determine the locations of the 
various points covering the motion. One object of this 
description is to avoid the necessity of a model except to 
verify the results. 

To entirely overcome the irregularities inherent in all 
motions transformed from circular into lineal, cannot 
for practical reasons be expected, but the errors may be 
reduced to such an extent that they do not affect either 
the power or economy of the locomotive. This remark is 
made to forestall the inference that the accuracy of the 
Walschaert motion as to the cut-off points is not superior 
to the Stephenson motion when the latter is turned out of 
the shop. 

In the construction of the Walschaert gear the desired 
travel of the valve, the lead and the maximum cut-oft 
which determines the lap of the valve, are selected. The 
stroke of the piston being given, the combination lever is 
proportioned so that a motion equal to the lap and lead is 
given to the valve when the crosshead is moved from one 
end of the stroke to the other. The link may be made of 
any approved design, and is so located that the radius 
bar will have a length of at least eight times (ten or 
twelve times is better) the travel of the link block, and 
the radius of the link should be equal to the length of the 
radius bar. 



WALSCHAERT VALVE GEAR 751 

For outside admission valves the radius bar is attached 
to the combination lever between the valve stem and the 
crosshead connections, and for inside admission (piston 
valves) it is attached above the valve stem. The fulcrum 
of the link should lie as nearly as practicable upon a line 
drawn through the union of the radius-bar and com.bina- 
tion lever, parallel with the center line of the valve stem. 
The suspension point of the lifter should have a locus 
which causes the link block to travel as nearly as practica- 
ble on a chord of the arc described by any point of the 
link, wherever the block happens to be when the link is 
swung into one of its extreme positions. 

This is most closely approached by a lifter through 
which the radius bar slides, and does not swing with the 
link. A properly suspended hanger will accomplish prac- 
tically the same result, though the slip of the link bar will 
be somewhat more in the back than in the forward mo- 
tion, but as the suspension point cannot be made to follow 
the theoretical locus, it should be made to do so as nearly 
as possible by favoring the position of the most commonly 
used cut-offs. 

In locating the longitudinal position of the link ful- 
crum, consideration should also be given to the length of 
the eccentric rod, which should have a minimum length of 
3^ times the eccentric throw, and should be m.ade as long 
as circumstances will permit, with an approximate equal 
length of the radius and eccentric rods. The point of 
connection between the eccentric rod and the link should 
be as near the center line of motion of the main rod as 
this correction for rod angularities will permit, but this 
is often accompanied with the requirement of excessive 
eccentric throw. In such cases a compromise must be 
made to raise this point. The fore and aft position of this 



752 LOCOMOTIVE EXGIXEERING 

point relative to the tangent of the Unk arc must also be 
determined with reference to the angularity of the ec- 
centric and main-rods, so that the link is exactly in its 
central position when the piston is at either end of the 
stroke. The angles through which the link swings on 
both sides of its central position should be as nearly as 
practicable equal, but this is subordinate to other condi- 
tions. Attention should be paid to the effect of the angu- 
larity of the main connecting rod upon the cut-off, to 
reduce this to a minim.um, this having an effect upon de- 
termining the locus of the suspension point of the lifting 
link, as well as that of the eccentric rod connection to 
the link. 

It is evident that a proper design of Walschaert gear 
can only be laid out by a skilled draughtsman. In main- 
tenance, care is required that all parts should preserve 
their original forms and position, and this should be 
checked by verifying the valve movements through turn- 
ing the main driving wheels before the locomotive goes 
into service. 

The chief point of difference between the Walschaert 
and Stephenson motions is that the former gives to the 
valve a constant lead at all cut-offs, whereas the latter 
produces an increase of lead which becomes excessive at 
short cut-offs. 

METHOD OF ADJUSTING VALVES WITH 
WALSCHAERT GEAR. 

The lap and lead are determined by the proportion of 
the arms of the combination lever and the stroke of the 
piston. The amount is found by turning the engine from 
one dead center to the other center in any cut-off position. 

I. The motion must be adjusted with the cranks on 



WALSCHAERT VALVE GEAR 753 

the dead centers, by lengthening, or shortening the eccen- 
tric rods until the link takes such a position as to impart 
no motion to the valve when the link block is moved from 
its extreme forward to its extreme backward position. 
Before this change in the eccentric rod is resorted to, the 
length of the valve stem should be examined, as it may 
be of advantage to plane off, or line under, the foot of 
the link support which might correct the lengths of both 
rods, or at least only one of these should need to be 
changed. 

2. The difference between the two positions of the 
valve on the forward and back centers is the lap and lead 
doubled, and cannot be changed, except by changing the 
leverage relations of the combination lever. 

3. A given lead determines the lap, or a given lap de- 
termines the lead, and it must be divided for both ends 
as desired, by lengthening or shorteiiing the valve spindle. 

4. Within certain limits this adjustment may be made 
by shortening or lengthening the radius bar, but it is de- 
sirable to keep the length of this bar equal to the radius 
of the links, in order to meet the requirements of the first 
condition, 

5. The lead may be increased by reducing the lap, 
and the cut-off point will then be slightly advanced. In- 
creasing the lap introduces the opposite efifect on the cut- 
off. With good judgment these quantities may be varied 
to offset the irregularities inherent in transforming rotary 
into lineal motions. 

6. Slight variations may be made in the cut-off points 
as covered by the previous paragraph, but an independent 
adjustment cannot be made except by shifting the location 
of the suspension point, which is preferably determined 
by a model. 



754 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

METHOD OF LAYING OUT WALSCHAERT 
GEAR. 

Having presented a general outline of the gear, we may 
proceed in determining the m.ore irnportant points neces- 
sary to obtain a successful motion of the valve, and, as 
previously stated, the stroke of the engine is given, and 
the travel, and lap and lead of the valve are selected to 
suit a desired cut-off. We have first to find the propor- 
tions of the combination lever. By designating the lap 
and lead with a letter C, the crank Radius with R, the 
crosshead end of the combination lever with L, and the 
valve end of the same with V, we have R :C=L :V, or V= 

CL 

—5—, with the connection F of the radius bar as a ful- 
K 

crum. The length of the combination lever must be de- 
termined from the height of the valve stem over the piston 
rod, and a convenient angle of oscillation of 45° to 50°, 
which should not exceed 60°. 

We have next to find the required travel of point F, 
Fig. 333, to obtain the desired valve travel, which for 
convenience sake is taken on one side of the center posi- 
tion, or half its total travel in full gear, and which we 
will designate b, when we have: 



for outside admission, and b = 



R-hc ' R-c 

for inside admission valves, where a is the radius of an 
eccentric that would give the required travel of the valve, 
and c is as given above. 

This may be laid out graphically as in Figs. 3-^4 and 
335, when a is equal to one-half the travel of the valve 
and R and c the same as in the above formulae. 



WALSCHAERT VALVE GEAR 



7S: 




/;) 



LOCOMOTIVE EXGIXEERING 



With the Umited amount it is advisable to allow in 
raising or lowering the link block in reversing the mo- 
tion, we can without practical error consider the half 
m-ovement of the link block g to be the same as that of 
point F, and by limiting the angle of the swing of the 



lN 



Cr I 



.*~C-H 



FIG. 334 



link to a maximum of 45°, we get the raise or depression 



i\ 



of the radius bar and link block O^" 



, where O 



tan. d 

is the link fulcrum and d =half the angle of the swing 
of the link. 



.!J 



- R 



FIG. 335 



The location of the link and eccentric rod connecting 
point K, Fig. 333, cannot be determined with any prac- 
ticable formula, but must, as already stated, be found 
by plotting to meet the requirements of the different cut- 



WALSCHAERT VALVE GEAR 



75; 



offs and corresponding crank positions. The same is also 
the case with determining the locus for the suspension 
point P of the lifting link, and in these two locations lies 
the principal success of the gear. 



^-t^j>^ 




FIG. 336 



THE REAULEAUX AND ZEUNER DIAGRAMS. 

Figure 336 shows a combination of two diagrams, 
namely, those of Reauleaux and Zeuner, which coincide 
exactly as to the different valve movements, which may 
be found as follows: 

The distance AB represents the travel of the valve as 



758 LOCOMOTI\ E ENGINEERING 

well as the stroke of the engine, though in different scales, 
which makes no difference when the cut-off is always ex- 
pressed in fractions or per cent of AB. The maximum 
cut-off is determined upon to be AR. Draw a perpendicu- 
lar line RC from AB until it cuts the arc ACB. Next de- 
cide on a desired lead and, with that as a radius, draw an 
arc with A as a center. Draw a line from C tangent to 
the lead circle around A, when the lap of the valve 
is found to be equal to the perpendicular distance from 
the line CS to the center O of the diagram. The crank 
will then be in the position OS when the valve commences 
to open, or the angle AOS in advance of the dead center, 
and on OC at cut-off. Continuing, we find the valve in 
its middle position when the crank is on OG, which is 
drawn parallel to SC through the center O. Extend this 
line to F, and with the exhaust lap as a radius, draw the 
exhaust lap circle on the opposite side of the line GF, and 
draw DE tangent to this circle, when OD is the position 
of the crank at the release point. From this point the 
exhaust remains open until the crank reaches the position 
OF, when it closes, and compression takes place until it 
again reaches OS for admission, and one revolution is 
completed. 

By placing the Zeuner diagram upon this, draw HJ 
perpendicular to EG, and with the radius OH of the 
eccentric circle as a diameter, draw the admission valve 
circle OVUiiO, and the lap circle with the steam lap as 
a radius and find the intersection occurs at Y, both with 
the circles and the previously laid down admission line 
OS, and the cut-off point at the intersections at n. On the 
line OPI set off the width of the steam port from L 
toward H equal to l^ni, and with Om as radius draw the 
arc K/nK. The shaded figure enclosed by the letters 



WALSCHAERT VALVE GEAR 



759 



VKK'nL represents the steam port opening during the 
admission period, and the width of the port opening at any 
desired position of the crank is found by measuring the 
distance radially from O between the lap and valve 
circles on the port line, as the case may be, on the de- 
sired crank position. 




FIG. 



The exhaust openings are determined in the same man- 
ner and are shown on opposite side of FG, where the 
crank passes through the arc DJE during the exhaust 
period, with a positive exhaust lap of the size EF. 
AVhen the exhaust edge of the valve is line and line, 
this arc becom.es GFJ, or i8o°, and when a negative lap 



760 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



(clearance) occurs, the duration of the exhaust period 
exceeds the half revolution of the crank. The various 
events are indicated around the eccentric circle on the 
figure as they take place during a complete turn of the 
crank. 




FIG. 338. A CONVENIENT GAUGE FOR SETTING THE 
ECCENTRIC CRANK 



In Fig. 337 the eccentric and admission valve circles 
are shown at different cut-ofifs where each set of lines 
and circles is governed by the same explanation as those 
of Fig. 336, where the admission points S, S/ S^, S^, cor- 
respond to the closing positions C, C^, C^, C^, cut-off 



WALSCHAERT VALVE GEAR 



761 




762 



LOCO^IOTIVE ENGINEERING 




WALSCHAERT VALVE GEAR 763 

points R, R\ R-, R\ etc. On OH we have the full travel 
valve circle and OL the lap or radius of the lap circle, 
the latter being the same for all cut-ofifs, as well as the 
lead, the radii H\ H-, H^'', etc., of the eccentric circles or 
diameters of the corresponding valve circles terminate 
on a line HI drawn perpendicular to AB, and at a dis- 
tance from O equal to that of lap and lead. 

When the reverse lever is in its center position the 
diameter of the valve circle falls on the line AB, and is 
equal to lap and lead. Continuing in back position we 
have the same method repeated and OI would be the full 
travel valve circle diameter, or the same as the eccentric 
radius for the valve travel. Any desired cut-off position 
may be laid out in the same manner as that in Fig. 336, 
which shows all the valve movements for a complete 
revolution of the axle. 

The movements are in actual practice not so regular 
as the circles indicate, as it is impracticable to obtain the 
various loci in their theoretical positions ; besides, we have 
the angularities both of the main rods and the eccentric 
rods to contend with, and whereby irregularities are en- 
tering in the problem that must be compensated for, as 
referred to in the general description. It is not to be 
considered that a uniform circular motion is the best, but 
an approximation to it works with fewer shocks or jerks, 
and is therefore more desirable for so high-speed an en- 
gine as a locomotive. A few advantages can be taken, 
however, in selecting the suspension, and various connec- 
tions, so that better results can be obtained than from a 
true circular motion, which are principally affected by 
three union points and are, first, the connecting point of 
eccentric rod and link; second, the locus of the lifting 
link suspension point; and third, the relative height of 



764 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




WALSCHAERT VALVE GEAR 



765 




766 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

the crosshead connection point of the union bar, to the 
corresponding point of the combination lever. 

It is not necessary to lay out the valve diagrams ex- 
cept where a given cut-off per cent is wanted. This is the 
most convenient way to find the required lap. 



WEIGHT OF WALSCHAERT GEAR. 

In the matter of weights of parts, the details, in pairs, 
of the Walschaert gear of this engine (Lake Shore & 
Michigan Southern 2-8-0 type No. 912) are as follows: 
Crosshead arms, 60 pounds ; vibrating rods, 220 pounds ; 
eccentric rods, 220 pounds ; links, 260 pounds ; transmis- 
sion bars, 140 pounds; valve rods, 70 pounds; eccentric 
cranks, 100 pounds ; vibrating links, 70 pounds ; valve 
stems, 72 pounds ; and transmission bar hangers, ']2 
pounds. This means a total weight of 1,252 pounds for 
the entire valve gear of the Lake Shore engine, not in- 
cluding the valves. The weight of the corresponding 
valve gear parts of a recently constructed 20 x 28-inch, 
4-6-0 engine, with Stephenson link motion, is 2,734 
pounds. Such a weight, which must be moved and re- 
versed for every revolution, imposes severe duty upon 
the eccentrics, and it is not surprising that they heat. 



WALSCHAERT VALVE GEAR 



767 











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768 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




WALSCHAERT VALVE GEAR 



769 




770 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




WALSCHAERT VALVE GEAR 



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LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 




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QUESTIONS 

1037. From what two points is motion transmitted to 
the valve by the Walschaert valve gear? 

1038. From what point are the two important factors 
of lap and lead imparted? 

1039. What advantage is derived from the crosshead 
connection as regards lead? 

1040. How may the movements of the valve as operat- 
ed by this gear be diagrammatically illustrated? 

1041. Mention an important feature of the Walschaert 
valve gear as regards adjustment. 

1042. How is the combination lever of the Walschaert 
gear proportioned relative to the piston stroke? 

1043. What kind of link is used with this valve gear, 
and how should it be located relative to the length of the 
radius bar? 

1044. At what point is the radius bar attached to the 
combination lever for outside admission valves? 

1045. At what point is this connection made for inside 
admission valves? 

1046. Where should the fulcrum of the link be lo- 
cated ? 

1047. Where should the suspension point of the link 
be located? 

1048. What should be the minimum length of the ec- 
centric rod, relative to the throw of the eccentric? 

773 



774 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

1049. What rule should be observed regarding the 
point of connection of the eccentric rod to the link? 

1050. In what position should the link be when the 
piston is at either end of the stroke? 

105 1. What is the chief point of difference between 
the Walschaert and the Stephenson valve motions? 

1052. How are the factors of lap and lead determined? 

1053. In the adjustment of the Walschaert valve gear, 
wdiat position should the crank be first placed in? 

1054. Before changing the length of the eccentric 
rod, what precaution should be observed regarding the 
valve rod? 

I055- What is the second rule to be observed in the 
adjustment of this motion? 

1056. Mention the third maxim for guidance in this 
adjustment. 

1057. Give the fourth rule relative to the adjustment 
of this gear. 

1058. According to the fifth rule, how may the lead 
be increased? 

1059. V\'hat effect does increasing the lead have upon 
the cut-off? 

1060. What is the sixth proposition relative to the ad- 
justment of the ^^^alschaert valve gear? 

1061. Can the location of the link and eccentric rod be 
determined by formula? 

1062. How then can these important points be found? 

1063. How is the location for the suspension point of 
the lifter determined? 

1064. Upon what two factors does the success of 
the Walschaert valve gear depend? 

1065. Are the valve movements in actual practice as 



QUESTIONS 775 

regular as the circles in the Reaiileaux, and Zeuner dia- 
grams indicate? 

1066. Give some reasons for this discrepancy. 

1067. How may many of the irregularities due to the 
angularities of the main rod and eccentric rod be largely 
modified ? 

1068. How does the Walschaert valve gear compare 
with the Stephenson link motion as regards weight ? 



THE OHIO LOCOMOTIVE INJECTOR. 

Type. — The Ohio Injector as shown is a simpl}^ con- 
structed lifting injector. It Hfts and forces the water 
with one set of tubes placed in a center line through the 
body of the injector. 

Description. — As shown in the sectional cut are the 
following parts : 

I — Body (back part). 

2 — Body (front part). 

3 — Delivery end connection. 

4 — Steam valve hub complete. 

5 — Steam valve and primer complete. 

6 — Steam nozzle. 

7 — Lifting tube. 

8 — Combining tube. 

9 — Delivery tube. 
10 — Line check valve. 
II — Stop ring. 

12 — Overflow valve complete. 
13 — Water valve complete. 
14 — Starting lever. • 

15 — Overflow nozzle. 

The steam pipe leading from the dry steam space of 
the boiler is connected to the top of the injector above 
steam valve 5. The water or suction pipe is connected 
to the bottom of the injector below water valve 13. The 
branch or delivery pipe is coupled to the delivery end 
connection in front of line check valve 10, and stop ring 

776 



THE OHIO INJECTOR 



177 




77^ LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 







Pi 
o 

u 
H 
i-s 

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o ^ 

II 

c - 



THE OHIO INJECTOR 779 

II. The overflow nozzle 15 should be fitted with a drain 
pipe leading to some convenient place outside of the ash 
pan. 

To Operate — First pull the starting lever 14 back until 
the resistance of primer is felt. As soon as full volume 
of water appears at the overflow, pull starting lever back 
as far as it will go. 

Regulate the quantity of water needed by the water 
valve. When operating the injector the steam pressure 
should be turned full into the steam pipe, as this governs 
the working of the injector. 

When the steam valve 5 is in priming position, the in- 
side priming nozzle is seated against the steam nozzle 6; 
this permits the steam to pass into the priming nozzle 
through the small ports, back of the seat, and to pass out 
through the contracted opening at the point of priming 
nozzle. As the steam leaves the priming nozzle it passes 
into the lifting tube 7; from lifting tube 7 the steam 
passes into combining tube 8, from which it passes 
through spill holes to the chamber surrounding the tubes. 
From this chamber the steam passes out through over- 
flow valve 12 and nozzle 15 into the atmosphere. 

The rush of steam passing from the point of the prim- 
ing nozzle into lifting tube 7, causes a partial vacuum to 
be formed in the chamber in front of water valve 13. The 
partial vacuum acting in combination with the atmos- 
pheric pressure on the water in the tank causes the 
water to rush up into the injector body and follow the 
rush of steam out of the overflow to the atmosphere. The 
starting lever 14 is pulled full back. The full jet of steam 
traveling at a high velocity mingles with the water and 
is condensed by it; the resultant mixture then has a 



78o LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

velocity, and pressure greater than the boiler pressure, 
which causes the water to be forced into the boiler. 

To use as heater: close the overflow valve 12, and 
pull lever 14 back until the resistance of the primer is 
felt, and let stand at this point. Overflow valve 12 must 
not be closed except when injector is to be used as a heat- 
er. 

Important points in applying and operating the Ohio 
Injector. The pipes should be the specified sizes for each 
size of injector. Keep the tank valve open wide ; keep 
all joints tight; keep hose strainers clean; keep packing in 
good condition. 

Working pressure and capacity. The Ohio Injector 
works under steam pressure from 250 lbs. down to 25 
pounds. The capacities are regulated according to size. 



TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE. 

This triple valve has the usual brake-pipe auxiliary 
reservoir, and brake-cylinder connections, also an addi- 
tional connection for a supplementary reservoir. Fig. 
348 shows a view of the type L triple valve, with the 
safety valve in place. In order that trains mav be con- 
trolled easily and smoothly when running at either high 
or low speeds, and that stops may be made quickly and 
with the least liability of wheel sliding, the brake ap- 
paratus must provide the following essential features 
of operation: 

A small brake-pipe reduction must give a moderate 
brake-cylinder pressure and a moderate but uniform re- 
tardation on the train as a whole. 

It must be possible to make a heavy service reduction 
quickly, but without liability of quick action. 

It must be possible to graduate the release as well 
as the application of the brakes. 

To insure the ability to obtain brake applications In 
rapid succession, and to full power, a quick recharging 
of the auxiliary reservoirs is necessary. This feature also 
enables the engineer to handle long trains in heavy grade 
work with a much greater factor of safety than hereto- 
fore, and eliminates the need for retaining valves. 

For high-speed trains, a high brake-cylinder pressure 
available for emergency applications is imperative, in 
order to provide a maximum braking power, when the 
shortest possible stop is required to save life or to avoid 
sudden danger. 

781 



782 



LOCOMOTR^E ENGINEERING 



The AA'estinghouse Air Brake Co. claim that they have 
met the above requirements by the development of the 
type L triple valve. This triple valve is of the quick- 
action, automatic, "'pipeless"' type, and is intended for 
use onl}' in high-speed passenger service. The L valve 




FIG. 34S. THE TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 

forms a part of the LN Passenger Car Equipment, which 
is designed throughout to meet the service conditions out- 
lined above. Being of the quick action type it possesses 
the following important features: 



TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 



783 



1st. Quick Recharge (of auxiliary reservoirs), by 
which a rapid recharging of the brake system is secured, 
thus making it possible to obtain full braking power im- 
mediately after a release has been made and permitting as 
many applications and releases in quick succession as may 
be desired, without materially depleting the system.. 



31 2« »S 8,7 26 29 30 




Fi;;. 349. THE TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 



2nd. Quick Service, by which a very quick serial 
service action of the brakes throughout the train is se- 
cured, similar to that in emergency applications, but less 
in degree. This makes certain the prompt and uniform 
application of all the brakes in the train, correspondingly 
increasing the rapidity and effectiveness of any given 
brake-pipe reduction, and thereby practically eliminating 
the need for the harsher emergency application, except 
in cases of actual danger. 

3rd. Graduated Release, which permits of partially 
or entirely releasing the brakes on the entire train at will. 

4th. High Emergency Cylinder Pressure, which 



784 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

greatly increases the available braking power in emer- 
gency applications over the maximum obtainable with 
a full service reduction. With this, as with all quick-ac- 
tion triple valves, a portion of the air contained in the 
brake pipe is vented to the brake cylinder in emergency 
applications, thus providing for the quick serial operation 
of the brakes in the usual way. This, in itself increases 
the brake cylinder pressure thus obtained, considerably 
above the maximum pressure, possible in ordinary service 
applications. 

The high em.ergency pressure feature referred to still 
further increases this em.ergency pressure, and the high 
C3dinder pressure thus obtained, is retained without re- 
duction, until released. 

This is accomplished by the use of a supplementary 
reservoir in addition to the ordinary auxiliary reservoir. 
The supplementary reservoir is approximately double the 
size of the auxiliary reservoirs. Its function is to assist 
in obtaining the graduated release of the brakes, and the 
high emergency cylinder pressure, and the way in which 
this is accomplished will be explained later on. This 
feature makes it possible to use the equipment as a high 
speed brake, when carrying 90 lbs. brake pipe pressure, 
and obtain better results than when using no lbs. pres- 
sure with the old standard equipment in steam road 
service. Fig. 349 shows a vertical cross section of the 
valve, and the names of its various parts are as follows: 

2, Valve Body; 3, Slide A'alve ; 4, Piston; 5, Piston 
Ring; 6, Slide Valve Spring; 7, Graduating Valve; 8, 
Emergency-A'alve Piston ; 9. Emergency- Valve Seat ; 10, 
Emergency- Valve ; 11, Rubber Seat for Emergency- 
Valve; 12, Check- Valve Spring; 13, Check- Valve Case; 
14, Check- Valve Case Gasket; 15, Check Valve; 16, 



TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 



785 



Emergency Valve Nut; 17, Graduating- Valve Spring; 18, 
Cylinder Cap ; 19, Graduating- Spring Nut ; 20, Graduat- 
ing Sleeve ; 21, Graduating Spring ; 22, Cylinder Cap Gas- 




FACE VIEW 

GRADUATING VALVE. 



'4-U-- 






© 



FACE VIEW 



C>) e^^ C 772 ) 





PLAN VIEW 

SLIDE VALVE. 





® 


CZJ 


^ 





® 






00 








SLIDE VALVE SEAT. 

FIG. 350. GRADUATING VALVE, SLIDE VALVE, AND SLIDE-VALVE 
SEAT. TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 



ket ; 23, Bolt and Nut for Cylinder Cap ; 24, Bolt and Nut 
for Check- Valve Case ; 25, By- Pass Piston ; 26, By-Pass 
Piston Ring; 2J, By-Pass-Valve; 28, By-Pass- Valve 



7^6 



LOCOMOTIVE EXGIXEERING 



Seat; 29, By-Pass- Valve Spring; 30, By-Pass Valve 
Cap; 31, By-Pass-Piston Cap; 32, Strainer; 33, E-7 
Safety Valve. 

Fig. 350 illustrates the actual arrangement of ports, 
and cavities, in the graduating valve, slide valve, and 
slide valve seat, of the type L triple valve. Owing to 
the impossibility of showing all of the ports and con- 




FIG. 351. 



FULL RELEASE AND CHARGING POSITION 



necting passageways in any single illustration, figures 
352, 353. 354, 355 and 356, are presented, and each 
shows in a diagrammatic way, the relations of the various 
parts to each other, for the different positions of the 
triple-valve piston. 

The actual proportions and mechanical construction of 
the parts have been disregarded, in order to make the 
connections, and operation more intelligible to the student. 
The letters designating the ports and passages appeal- 



TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 



787 



ing on Figures 349 to 356 inclusive, correspond through- 
out, but the reference numbers on Fig. 349 do not exactly 
correspond with those on the diagrammatic views. The 
various connections shown in Fig. 349, and the ports in 
Fig. 350 will, however, be made clear, by comparison 
with the diagrammatic views shown in Figures 351 to 
356. Referring to Fig. 350, it will be noticed that the 




FIG. 352 QUICK-SERVICE POSITION 



ports in the plan view of the slide valve seat are as fol- 
lows : r leads to the brake cylinder; t, to the top of the 
emergency piston; p, to exhaust; x, to the supplementary 
reservoir ; y, to the check valve case and chamber Y ; b, to 
the safety valve, and c, to the space behind the b3^-pass 
pistoru 

The registration of the parts is most readily followed, 
and understood, by reference to, and comparison with 



788 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 

the diagrammatic drawings, Figures 351 to 356, in which 
the connections to the triple valve are as follows : 

a — Brake Pipe. 

X — Supplementary Reservoir. 

C — Brake Cylinder. 

p — Exhaust. 

b — Safety Valve. 

R — Auxiliary Reservoir. 



OPERATION OF THE TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE. 

CHARGING. 

Referring to Figures 349 and 351, air from the brake 
pipe enters the triple valve through the passages a, e, 
g, and h, to the face of the triple valve piston (which is 
then forced to release position as shown), thence through 
the feed groove i to chamber R and auxiliary reservoir. 
Brake-pipe air in passage a also raises the check valve 15, 
and entering chamber Y flows thence through the ports 
y and / into chamber R and the auxiliary reservoir. This 
check valve then prevents any back flow of air from the 
auxiliary reservoir to the brake pipe. At the same time, 
port k registers with port x and the air in chamber R 
also flows through these ports into the supplementary 
reservoir. Both the auxiliary and supplementary reser- 
voirs are thus charged at the same time and to the same 
pressure from the brake pipe through the two diffeient 
channels already mentioned. When in this position, air 
from the brake cylinder, entering the triple valve at C, 
fl.ows through passage r, port n, large cavity W (Fig. 
350), in graduating valve, and ports m, and p, to the 
atmosphere, thus releasing the brakes. 



i 



TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 789 

SERVICE APPLICATION. 

The ports of the triple valve being in release, and 
charging as shown in Fig. 351, a service reduction in 
brake-pipe pressure, reduces the pressure in chamber h, 
and on the face of the triple valve piston, below that in 
the auxiliary reservoir on the opposite side of the piston. 

The higher auxiliary reservoir pressure therefore forc- 
es the piston in the direction of the lower brake-pipe 
pressure, carrying with it the attached graduating valve. 
The first movement of the piston closes the ports ;', m and 
k, thus shutting off communication between the brake 
pipe, and the auxiliary and supplementary reservoirs, and 
closing the exhaust passage from the brake cylinder to 
the atmosphere. The same movement opens port .z and 
connects ports q and 0, in the main slide valve through 
the small cavity v in Fig. 350 in the graduating valve. The 
spider or lugs on the end of the piston stem, then engage 
the end of the main slide valve, which is carried along 
with the piston, and graduating valve, as the reduction 
continues. This brings the parts into quick service posi- 
tion shown in Fig. 352. 

Service port ^ in the slide valve, registers with brake 
cylinder port r, in the seat, thus allowing the air in the 
auxiliary reservoir to flow to the brake cylinder, and ap- 
ply the brakes. At the same time the quick service ports, 
o and q, and the small cavity v, in the graduating valve, 
connect passage y leading from chamber Y in the check 
valve case with passage r leading to the brake cylinder. 
This allows air from the brake pipe to lift the check 
valve, and flow through the above mentioned ports to 
the brake cylinder. This constitutes the quick service 
action of the triple valve, in that it causes a slight, but 



790 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



definite reduction in brake pipe pressure locally, at each 
valve. The effect of a reduction in brake-pipe pressure, 
made at the brake valve, is thus quickly and uniformly 
transmitted from car to car throughout the train. The 
amount of air vented from the brake pipe to the quick 
service ports is not great for two reasons ; first, because 
the ports and the passage ways are small; second, be- 
cause in the movement of the slide valve 3 to full 




FIG. 353. FULL-SERVICE POSITION 



service position, the quick service port y is restricted as 
it approaches this position and completely closed just 
before service port z is fully open, as show^n in Fig. 353. 

The amount of opening given the service port in any 
case, depends upon the rate of reduction in brake pipe 
pressure as compared with that of the auxiliary reservoir. 

If the former is at first rapid, as compared with the 



TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 791 

latter, which would be the case with short trains, the 
higher auxiliary pressure moves the piston at once to 
Full-Service Position, Fig. 353, thus automatically cut- 
ting out the quick-service feature where it is not need- 
ed. AVhen in Full-Service Position, Fig. 353, the service 
port J is fully open, and the quick-service port is closed. 
This stops the flow of air from the brake pipe to the 
cylinder and the quick-service action ceases. As shown in 
the cut, the graduating spring is compressed slightly 
when the piston is in full service position. In any case 
where the brake pipe reduction is so rapid, that the quick 
service feature is of no advantage, the difference of pres- 
sure on the two sides of the triple valve piston becomes 
at the same time sufficient to compress the graduating 
spring, and automatically close the quick service port as 
explained above. But if the brake pipe reduction is less 
rapid, or slow, as in the case of long trains, or moderate 
servicte reductions, a partial opening ©nly of the service 
port is sufficient to preserve a balance between the pres- 
sure on the two sides of the triple valve piston. The 
service port connecting the auxiliary reservoir to the brake 
cylinder, is much larger than the quick-service port con- 
necting the brake pipe to the brake cylinder. This serves 
to effectually prevent an emergency application, when 
only a service application is desired. It also guards 
against the brake-pipe reduction being continued, due to 
the quick-service port remaining open, after the reduc- 
tion has been stopped at the brake valve. 

During the time the slide valve 3 remains in Quick 
or Full-Service Positions, as shown in Figs. 352 and 
353, the cavity q connects the brake-cylinder port r with 
port h, leading to the safety valve. This safety valve, 
known as the E-7 (see Figures 348 and 349), is ordina- 



792 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



rily set for 62 lbs. In an emergency application, however, 
the safety valve is entirely cut off from the cylinder, as 
explained under the heading ''Emergency/' 



LAP. 



After a sufficient brake-pipe reduction has been made, 
the brake-valve handle is lapped, and further escape of 
air from the brake pipe is prevented. When the flow 



I 




FIG. 354. SERVICE-LAP POSITION 

of air from the auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylinder 
has reduced the pressure on the reservoir side of the 
triple-valve piston slightly below that remaining on the 
brake-pipe side, the pressure in the brake pipe, assisted by 
the graduating spring, will move the piston, and graduat 
ing valve to service-lap position, shown in Fig. 354. In 
this position all of the ports are blanked by the grad- 



TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 793 

uating valve, and the flow of air to the brake cy Under 
is stopped. Further movement is prevented by the shoul- 
der of the piston stem striking the end of the slide valve 
3, as shown in the cut. The slight difference of pressure 
which was sufficient to move the piston and small grad- 
uating valve is unable to overcome the added resistance of 
the slide valve, and the parts remain in the position shown. 

It should be noted that the slide valve 3 remains in 
Service Position, a movement of* the piston and gradu- 
ating valve being all that is required to lap the valve. 
Consequently, when in this position, only a slight re- 
duction in brake-pipe pressure is required to again bring 
the piston and graduating valve into Service Position. 
It is evident that the exact position of the main slide 
valve in Lap Position depends upon whether its previous 
position was that of quick service (Fig. 352), or full 
service (Fig. 353). If the former, the lap position as- 
sumed would be that of quick-service lap (Fig. 354). 
If, however, the valve had moved to full service, the po- 
sition would be that of full-service lap. The main piston 
being in service-lap position (Fig. 354), the pressure on 
both sides of it must be equal. If the brake-pipe pres- 
sure is increased in order to "elease the brakes, the higher 
pressure on that side of the piston causes it to move the 
graduating and slide valves to the extreme right to re- 
lease, and recharging position, previously described (see 
Fig. 351). The air, which was prevented from leaving 
the supplementary reservoir by the former movement of 
the slide valve to service position, and which consequently 
remained at its initial pressure, while the auxiliary reser- 
voir pressure was being reduced, now flows into the aux- 
iliary reservoir and helps to recharge it. 

During this operation, as well as while graduating 



794 LOCO^IOTR^E ENGINEERING 

the release of the brakes, described under the next 
heading, the pressures on the brake pipe and auxihary 
reservoir sides of the triple-valve piston are always in 
balance. This is important, since it insures an imme- 
diate response of the brakes to any reduction, or in- 
crease in brake-pipe pressure, irrespective of what 'oper- 
ation may have occurred just preceding. 

If the brake-valve handle is moved to Running Posi- 
tion and left there, the brake-pipe pressure is fully re- 
stored and the piston remains in Release Position ; the 
brakes being thereby fully released and the auxiliary and 
supplementary reservoirs fully recharged. 



GRADUATED RELEASE. 

Suppose, however, that after the brakes have been 
applied, only sufficient air is permitted to flow into the 
brake pipe to move piston 4, with the slide, and grad- 
uating valves, to release position (Fig. 351), and the 
brake-valve handle is returned to lap. Then the flow 
of air from the supplementary reservoir, through ports 
X and k, to the auxiliary reservoir, continuing after the 
rise in brake-pipe pressure has ceased, the pressure on 
the auxiliary reservoir side of the triple-valve piston will 
be raised slightly higher than that on the brake-pipe 
side, and cause the piston, and its attached regulating 
valve, to m.ove to the left, to graduated release position 
shown in Fig. 355. In this position the brake is only par- 
tially released, and a portion of the air pressure originally 
in the brake cylinder still remains there. In this way, 
the brake cylinder pressure may be released in a series of 
steps, or graduations, and the operation is known as grad- 



TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 



795 



uated release, and may be repeated as desired, until the 
brake-pipe pressure has been fully restored, and the ex- 
haust of air from the brake cylinder completed. The 
amount of reduction in the brake cylinder pressure for 
any given graduation depends upon the amount of air 
pressure which has been restored in 'the brake pipe. The 
recharq-e of the brakes is similarly proportioned. 




FIG. 355. GRADUATED-RELEASE-LAP POSITION 



EMERGENCY. 



When the brake-pipe pressure is reduced suddenly, or 
its reduction continues to be more rapid than that in 
auxiliary-reservoir pressure, the piston is forced to the 
extreme left and compresses the graduating spring. The 
parts are then in Emergency Position, as shown in Fig. 



796 LOCOAIOTIVE ENGINEERING 

356. In this position air from the auxihary reservoir en- 
ters the brake cylinder passage r through the port ^^ in 
the main slide valve, instead of port :: as in service appli- 
cation. Port t in the seat is also uncovered by the end of 
the main slide valve, thus admitting air from the auxil- 
iary reservoir, through port t to the top of the emergency 
piston. 




FIG. 356. EMERGENCY POSITION 

The air pressure thus admitted to the top of this pistonj 
pushes it down and forces the rubber seated emergency 
valve from its seat. This allows the brake pipe air in pas- 
sage a to lift the emergency check valve, and flow througl 
chambers 3* and x to the brake cylinder C, in the ordinan 
way. At the same time port d, in the main slide valvej 
registers with port c in the seat. This allows air from' 
behind the by-pass piston to flow through ports c, d and 
n to r, and the brake cylinder. As there is no pressure 



TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 797 

in the brake cylinder at this instant, the by-pass piston, 
with its attached by-pass valve is forced to the left by the 
auxiliary reservoir pressure acting against its opposite 
face. The air contained in the supplementary reservoir 
then flows past this valve into the passage way leading to 
the auxiliary reservoir. It thereby adds to the latter, 
the volume of the supplementary reservoir. 

This gives in effect an auxiliary reservoir pressure vol- 
ume approximately three times the size of the one that 
supplies air to the brake cylinder in a service application. 
Air from, the supplementary reservoir continues to flow 
to the auxiliary reservoir until the pressures in the latter, 
and in the brake cylinder have risen nearly to that re- 
maining in the supplementary reservoir. Communication 
between the two reservoirs is then closed by the by-pass 
valve returning to its seat. 

This action of the triple valve in the emergency appli- 
cations permits the pressure in the brake cylinder to rise 
to within a few' pounds of maximum brake-pipe pressure, 
a much higher pressure being secured in emergency 
applications than is possible with the standard quick- 
action triple valve. 

Further more it will be noted by reference to Fig. 
356 that cavity q has traveled past the brake cylinder 
port r, so that the latter is no longer connected to the 
safety valve h. Hence, there is no escape of air from 
the brake cylinder after an emergency application of 
the brakes. Not only, therefore, is the emergency 
pressure considerably higher than that formerly secured 
by the use of the old standard High-Speed Brake, but it 
is held without diminution until the brakes are released. 



798 LOCO:\IOTI\ E EXGIXEERING 

INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE. 

The triple valve is usually bolted to the pressure 
head of the brake cylinder, to which all the pipe con- 
nections are permanently made. In removing the valve, 
no pipes need to be disconnected, the loosening of the 
three bolts which hold it in place being all that is re- 
quired. Hence, the name "Pipeless," as appHed to this 
valve. Care should be taken in locating the valve to 
have it free from obstructions which would render in- 
spection or removal difficult. It should be placed as 
far as possible above the general level of the piping so 
that no pockets are formed in the latter. If this point 
does not receive proper attention, trouble may be ex- 
perienced in cold weather from the freezing- of water 
in the pipes or valve itself. Under ordinary service 
conditions, the triple valve should be thoroughly cleaned 
and lubricated once in three months. The proper interval 
is best determined for each particular case by a careful 
inspection and trial. Where conditions are severe and 
the triple valve exposed to extremes of weather, dirt and 
so on, more frequent inspections will no doubt be found 
necessary. Where the valve is protected, and not sub- 
jected to hard usage the interval may be lengthened. 
The use of heavy grease or other lubricants which will 
"gum'' and cause the valve to work stiff, or clog the 
ports, should be avoided. Too light a lubricant or one 
that does not possess sufficient "body," is not satisfactory, 
as it will not thoroughly lubricate the parts or last as 
long- as necessary. Special lubricants made for this pur- 
pose will give the best results. 

Before installing the triple valve all of the piping 
should be thoroughly hammered and blown out, in order 



TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE 799 

to loosen and remove all scale and foreign matter. This 
is especially important in new installations. After the 
piping is completed all of the joints should be thoroughly- 
tested with soap suds, under pressure, and made air 
tight. Particular attention should be given to the safety 
valve and its strainers, in order that no dirt or scale can 
reach the safety valve seat and prevent it from properly 
closing. The by-pass piston should also receive atten- 
tion to insure that it is working freely in its bushing. 

Never remove the movable parts of the triple valve 
while it is on the car. If the valve is not working 
properly, or needs cleaning- and oiling, take it down 
and replace it by a valve in good condition. All cleaning 
and oiling should be done at a bench, by a competent 
man ; where the liability of damage to the internal parts 
of the valve is least. Any attempt to take the triple 
valve apart while still on the car is almost sure to result 
in a large percentage of valves being injured by care- 
less handling, or dirt getting inside the pipes, or valve. 
If repairs are necessary the valves should be sent to the 
shops, where the facilities for doing the work are best. 

The complete LN equipment includes a type L valve 
triple valve, with safety valve, a supplementary reservoir 
and a cut-out cock. At times, however, cars equipped 
with this schedule must be operated in trains with cars 
having the old standard equipment (P triple valves), 
as for instance during the transmission period when a 
change is being made from the old standard to the LN 
schedule. 

During this time the cut-out cock between the triple 
valve and supplementary reservoir should be closed. 
The new valves will then work in perfect harmony with 
the old. In fact, if old and new equipments are to be 



8oo LOCOMOTIVE ENGIXEERING 

in service together for any considerable length of time, 
the cut-out cock and supplementary reservoir may be 
omitted entirely, as well as the safety valve, furnished 
with the triple valve. If the equipment is used with 70 
lbs. brake-pipe pressure, no other change is necessary, and 
only the addition of the ordinary High-Speed Reducing 
Valve is required for High-Speed Service (no lbs. brake- 
pipe pressure). In such cases where the conditions of 
service demand, there would, of course, be the same 
necessit}' for a Pressure-Retaining \^alve, as with the 
Type P Triple Valve, 

QUESTIONS 

1069. AMiat are the requirements of a brake appa- 
ratus ? 

1070. \Mierein does the type L valve differ from the 
older equipments? 

10/ 1. Whsit important feature does the type L valve 
possess? 

1072. In what way is the high emergency pressure 
feature secured? 

1073. What is the function of the supplementary 
reservoir ? 

1074. Describe in brief, the process of charging and 
release ? 

1075. How is service application accomplished? 

1076. How is quick service brought about? 

1077. Upon what does the amount of opening given 
the service port depend? 

1078. If the reduction is so rapid that the quick 
service feature is no advantage, how does the graduat- 
ing spring act? 



QUESTIONS 8oi 

1079. What is the result when the brake-pipe reduc- 
tion is moderate or slow? 

1080. Is there any liability of an emergency applica- 
tion occurring when only a service application is desired? 

1081. How is this regulated by the L valve? 

1082. How is the position of lap accomplished? 

1083. What is the function of the graduating valve in 
lap position? 

1084. Upon what does the position of the main slide 
valve depend in lap position ? 

1085. How is the position of graduated release reg- 
ulated by the L valve? 

1086. What are the advantages of graduated release? 

1087. In what way is emergency position brought 
about ? 

1088. How is the volume of air available for use in 
the brake cylinder increased in case of emergency? 

1089. Is it possible to secure a higher pressure in 
emergency application with this valve than it is with 
the standard quick action valve? 

1090. Is there any escape of air from, the brake cylin- 
der after an emergency application with the L valve? 

1091. Why is the L valve called a *'Pipeless" valve? 
Describe briefly the proper location of the valve when 
installed. 

1092. How often should it be cleaned and inspected? 

1093. What should be the nature of the lubricant 
used on it? 

1094. What should be done with the piping before 
installing the valve ? 

1095. Mention the parts that should receive particular 
attention. 



8o2 LOCOMOTR'E ENGINEERING 

1096. If repairs are necessary, what should be done 
with the valve? 

1097. What does the complete LN equipment in- 
clude ? 

1098. Can it be operated in conjunction with the old 
standard equipment? 

1099. \Miat chang-es are necessary in order to accom- 
plish this? 

1 100. In case High-Speed Service (no lbs. brake- 
pipe pressure) is required, what additions are necessary? 



INDEX 

Adiabatic, Curve . , 217 

Expansion 246-248 

Air, Composition of 20 

Nature of 20 

Quantity required for combustion of coal 22 

Air-Brake, as an element of safety 509 

New York system 572-573 

Westinghouse system '. . . 51 1-513 

Essential features of 781 

Accelerator valve 628, 651-653 

Parts of 653 

Air gauge. Duplex 541-590 

.Air pump, New York duplex ' 572, 573 

Westinghouse eight-inch 513-518 

Westinghouse nine and one-half inch 518-523 

Westinghouse eleven-inch 523-524 

Air pump governor 525-528, 586-589 

American Locomotive Co.'s Schenectady cross com- 
pound ' 317-320 

Balanced compound 294-295 

Tandem compound 297-310 

American steam gauge 389 

Duplex gauge 393-394 

Muffled pop valves 399-400 

Atmosphere, pressure of, at sea level 215 

Atmospheric, line 225 

Automatic, air brake 51 1-573 

Steam chest plugs 412 

803 



8o4 INDEX 

B 
Ball joints 89-90 

Baldwin Locomotive Co.'s balanced compound 290 

Cross compound 313 

Tandem compound 311 

Balanced compounds, cylinders of 294 

Distribution of steam in -294 

Uniform turning moment of 295 

Advantages claimed for 295-296 

Bed casting 115 

How secured to smoke box 116 

Steam passages in 116-117 

Blower, principles of action 14 

When to use 15 

Bleeding off an air brake 564 

Boiler, the 45 

Four vital organs of 45 

Plates, expansion and contraction of 46 

Bracing and staying 46-53 

Belpaire type 50-5 1 

Tubes, diameter of 54 

^Material, tensile strength of 56-57 

Steel, method of testing 58 

Specifications 57 

The Vanderbilt 73-74 

Modern locomotive, sectional 78-80 

Diameter of cylindrical portion . . • 80 

Washer, the Hancock 384-386 

Boyle, law of expanding gases 217-241 

Brewer, Pneumatic door opener 466-470 

Broken, back spring 486 

Blow-off cock 493-494 

Center casting 485-486 



INDEX 805 

Crank pin 488-489 

Cross-head 481-489 

Cylinder heads 481-482 

Draw-bar 488 

Driving brass 488 

Driving axle 492 

Driving spring or hanger 483-484 

Eccentric strap or blade 477-489 

Engine truck wheel or axle 486 

Engine truck spring hanger 485 

Equalizers 484-485 

Equalizer stands 485 

Frame 487-488 

Guide blocks or bolts 482 

Guide yoke 482 

High-pressure cylinder head 499 

High-pressure piston or piston rod 499 

Low-pressure cylinder head 499 

Low-pressure piston or piston head 499 

Main rod 487 

Main valve rod 498 

Metallic packing 491 

Piston gland studs 491 

Piston rod 491 

Reach rod , 478 

Rocker arm 477 

Side rod on consolidation engine 486 

Side rod or strap 481 

Steam chest or cover 490-491 

Tender wheel or axle 488 

Tire on eight-wheel engine 487 

Throttle 490 

Valve rod or link 477 



8o6 INDEX 

Valve seat 478 

Valve yoke 480 

Water-glass 492-493 

Whistle stand 490 

Burster! flue 496 

Bull's-eye lubricator . 404-406 

B 2 H. S. equipment (New York air-brake) . . . .627-661 
B 2 S. equipment 628 

C 

Carbon, heating- value of one pound 20 

Classification of locomotives, Wliite's system 11 

Clearance, theoretical 239 

Inside 121-122 

^Meaning of 124, 216 

Piston 216 

Mechanical . 124 

Combined automatic and straight air-brake valve... 613 

Coal, composition of 21 

Factors required for economical burning 22 

Amount of energy in one pound of 30 

Quantity of air required for its combustion 22 

Compound locomotives, economy of 260-289 

Problems pertaining to ' 261 

Types of - 261-262 

Balanced 290-296 

Tandem 296 

A^auclain 262-282 

Compression 122, 226, 238 

Definition of 224 

Crane, pop valve 400-401 

Crown, bars and bolts 48 

Sheet and methods of staying 48 



INDEX 807 

Crosby, steam gauge 387 

Duplex 388 

Improved 389 

Pop valve 393-395 

•Muffled pop valve 397 

Cross compound 312-313 

Operation working simple 323-326 

To change from simple to compound 326 

Starting compound 326 

To change from compound to simple. 327 

Lubrication of 327 

Examination of 331 

Curve, Adiaba.tic 217, 246 

Isothermal 217 

Expansion 217 

Theoretical expansion 240243 

Cut-out cocks No. 1-3-6. 631 

No. 5-7-9-10 632 

Cut-off 120-122 

How to equalize 149-155 

Cylinder cocks, Hancock pneumatic 421-423 

Low-pressure 265 

High-pressure 265 

Testing packing on 303, 308, 309 

Cylinder gauge 63 1 

D 

D-8 brake valve 530-533 

Dampers 332 

Dead center, how to find 135-142 

Detroit lubricator 407 

Triple 409 

Four-feed 409-410 

Operation 407-412 



8o8 INDEX 

Diagram, indicator 204-210 

Analysis of 225-254 

Area of - 255 

Diagrams, Reauleaiix and Zeuner 7S7~7^^ 

Diaphragm, function of lOO 

How to adjust 101-103 

Proper angle of 103-105 

Opening under 103-104 

Horizontal plate of 104-105 

Disconnecting, one or both sides 482-484 

Double pressure system 645, 650 

Double pressure controller, parts of 650 

Drifting 300-329 

Dry pipe 85 

Material for 85-86 



E 

Eccentric, what It is 223 

Throw of 224 

Blades 128 

Straps 128 

Rods, length of 143, 147, 148 

Position of, on driving axle 133, 224 

How secured to driving axle. 149 

Edwards, Electric headlight 440-448 

Vertical beam 440-443 

Translucent shade 441 

Turbine engine 442 

Dynamo 442 

Method of application 444 

Operation 445-448 

Electric headlight 426 



INDEX 809 

Emergency action of triple valve . . 559, 560, 600 

Engine, Simple 114 

Compound 1 14-1 15 

Efficiency of 219 

Working water 493 

Engineer's brake valve 528, 533, 590, 600 

E. T. Locomotive brake equipment v • • * -665-718 

Arrangement of apparatus 671-674 

Automatic operation 682-694 

"Dead engine" feature 723-724 

Distributing valve 674-682 

Feed valve 710-714 

Independent brake valve 705"709 

^Manipulation 666-669 

Parts of 669-671 

Pump governor 715-718 

Reducing valve 715 

Safety valve 695-696 

Type H. Automatic brake valve 696-705 

Excess pressure (N. Y. air-brake) 627 

Exhaust, closure 155-156 

Why it creates draught 14 

Exhaust jet, cross-section of 106- J07 

Contact with stack 106 

Efficiency of 108 

Pressures in center of 107 

Exhaust nozzles 90 

Bushings for 90-91 

Adjustable ^ 91-92 

Automatically regulated 92 

Area of 93 

DeLancy 94-96 

Canby 97-98 



8io INDEX 

Exhaust stand^ height of • 109 

Partition in 109 

F 

F-6 brake valve 533 

Positions of 535-536 

Fire, proper depth of, to carry 13 

Firebox, Description of 45 

Fireman, Duties of 12-19 

Firing, Best method of 14-19 

G 

G-6 brake valve 541-543 

Gauges, American duplex 393-394 

American locomotive gauge 389-391 

Crosby duplex 388 

Crosby improved 388-389 

Crosby steam 387 

Graduating valve ■ 553 

Stem and spring 555 

Grates, Rocking and shaking 15-16 

Water 16-17 

Square feet of surface required 17 

When to shake 19 

H 

Hancock, Boiler washer 423-425 

Inspirator 376 

Hose strainer 425 

Pneumatic cylinder cocks 421-423 

Heat, A form of energy ^ 23 

Device for measuring 25 

Its nature and cause 23-24 



INDEX 8ii 

Mechanical equivalent of ., 26 

Sensible and latent 27-29 

Specific 26-27 

Total of evaporation 30 

Total in steam of 100 pounds pressure 30 

High speed controller with lever safety valve. ..657-661 

Horsepower, Indicated 216 

Alethods of calculating 220 

What it represents 216-220 

Hydrogen, Nature and heating value of . 20 

I 

Indicator, Connections for .208-209 

Diagrams 204-211 

Diagrams, analysis of 213 

Inventor of 202 

Principles of 202-203 

Spring 204-207 

Injector, By whom invented . . . '. 339 

Emergency method of handling 352-355 

Importance of proper handling 337-338 

Inlet valve 356 

Right time and place to use 337-338 

Sellers' self-acting 35 1 

Sizes of . . 348 

The Giffard 338 

Strainer for suction pipe 349 

The Sellers' improved 344-347 

The Aletropolitan 35*^^-363 

The Monitor 33^^-339 

The Little Giant 369 

The Simplex 371-374 

The Lunkenheimer , 374-37^ 



t$i2 INDEX 

To remove tubes 353 

Why it lifts water 339 to 341 

Why it forces water into boiler 342-344 

Injector, Ohio 776-780 

Inspirator, The Hancock 376-380 

Connections and Operation 380-383 

Internal arrangement of 37^-379 

Lifting apparatus of 37^377 

Range of 377 

Regulation of 378 

Type composite 382-384 

InspSGtion of Engine 475 

J 

Joints, Ball 89-90 

Ring 90 

K 

K Triple valve 724-745 

Emergency position 743-744 

Full release and charging position 732-733 

Full service position 737*738 

Lap position 738-740 

^Manipulation 745 

Parts of 728-729 

Quick service position 734"736 

Retarded release and charging position 740-742 

Kunkle pop valve 402-403 

L 

Lap, Amount of 143-145 

Inside 120-224 

^Meaning of 120-224 

Outside 121 



INDEX 813 

Lead, Amount of 128-129, ^43 

Cause of increased 124-127 

Negative 129 

Object of 124, 224 

Link, Block 125 

How supported 125 

Radius of 124-129 

Saddle 125-128 

Line, Admission 226 

Atmospheric 204-225 

Back pressure 205-226 

Vacuum 225-229 

L Triple valve 781-800 

Charging position 788 

Emergency position 795-797 

Full release and charging position 786 

Graduated release position 794 

Installation and maintenance 798-800 

Lap position 792-793 

Parts of 784-786 

Quick service position 787 

Service application position 789 

Lubricator, What to do in case it refuses to work. . .496 

Lubrication, Of air pumps 524-525 

Of valves and cylinders 497-498 

Lubricators 403 

Detroit 407-412 

New bull's-eye 404-406 

New Nathan triple 413-415 

Logarithms 22a 

Hyperbolic 221 



8i4 INDEX 

:m 

Main reservoir cock 631 

[Metropolitan injector 358 

How to start 359 

How to regulate 361-362 

Operation of 360 

Pipe connections 359 

Repairs to 363 

To use as a heater , 362 

Monitor injector 363 

Flanged 364 

Its capacity 367 

Operation 367-369 

Recent improvements in 365 

To use as a heater 368-369 

N . 

Xathan Lubricator. Bull's-eye 404-406 

New Nathan 408 

Triple sight feed 413 

Netting. Area and mesh of 1 1 1 

Resistance of 1 1 1 

Nitrogen, not a promoter of combustion 22 

New plain triple valve 564 

New York Air Brake, automatic 572 

Straight 613 

Automatic lap position 498, 603 

Automatic and straight air valve 613 

Duplex air pump, sizes of 573 

Duplex air pump, steam end 574"579 

Duplex air pump, air end 579-583 

Duplex air gauge and connections 590 

Emergency position 600 



INDEX 815 

Engineer's brake valve 590-601 

Lap position 595 

Oil cup, style A • 585 

Style B 586 

Plain triple valve 605 

Pump governors, style A 589 

Style C 586 

Quick-action triple valve 605, 615 

Release position 592 

Running position 593 

Service application 590-59I 

Service graduating position 597 

Straight air reducing valve 515-517 

O 

Ohio locomotive injector 776-780 

Oil dash pot 323-329 

Ordinates, Definition of 223 

Method of drawing 249-252 

Oxygen, As a factor of combustion. 21 

P 

Petticoat pipes 98, 100, 1 10 

Diameter of 107 

Importance of lOO 

Method of adjustment 99-100 

Piston, Clearance 216 

Displacement 216 

Speed 216 

Testing packing sleeve on tandem 309-310 

Plain triple valve, Common form 562-563 

Plates, Punched and drilled 58 

Expansion and contraction of 58 



8i6 INDEX 

Planimeter 256 

Pneumatic cylinder cocks 421-423 

Pop valves, American 399 

Crane 400-401 

Crosby 392-397 

Kunkle's lock-up 402 

Principles of action 19 

Why attached to a boiler 19 

Port, Minimum opening of 155-156 

Power 217 

Calculations of 248-255 

Pressure, Absolute 213 

Absolute back 214 

Back 213 

Condenser 214 

Gauge 213 

Initial 213 

Retaining valve 565 

Prindle's syphon cocks 403 

R 

Recharging auxiliary reservoir 549-552 

Release of air brake 548-549 

Retaining valve (air brake) 564 

Rivets, Material for , ;. 58 

Method of testing 59 

Specifications for 59 

Riveted joints, Double butt 62 

Double lap 66 

Efficiency of 59 

Triple butt 64 

Quadruple riveted butt '. 69-70 

Weakest parts of 66, 68, 70 



INDEX 817 

Riveting machine . . ' 63 

Rocker-Arms 145 

Box 127 

Shaft 127 

S 

Saddle plate 115 

Safety valves, Common faults of 392 

Requirements of 392 

Sansom bell ringer 415-417 

Schenectady cross compound 500-501 

Sellers' injector 344-347 

Operation 351-352 

Simplex injector 371 

Construction . 373 

Operation 374 

Sizes and capacities of injectors 348-359 

Smoke, How to prevent 15-22 

Smoke box. Vacuum in in 

Stack, Diameter of 109-110 

Height of 109 

Straight formula for no 

Taper of 109-1 10 

Straight" air brake. How applied 563 

Reducing valve (New York) 615-616 

Stays, Correctly designed ^2 

Crowfoot 71 

Defects of 49 

Diagonal 53 

Gusset 75 

Minimum factor for 74 

Stay bolts 45 

Strains upon 46 



8i8 INDEX 

Hollow 46 

Tate flexible 46-47 

Staying flat surfaces 71 

Calculations for strength of ^2 

Rules for finding area of 75-77 

U. S. inspector's rules for 71 

Steam, Consumption 221, 223, 230 

Chest 84, 115, 119 

Dome 84 

Distribution 310 

Efficiency 218 

Energy in one cubic foot 218 

Gauges 387-389 

How conveyed to the c}'linders 84 

Nature of .■ 33 

]\Ioisture in 36 

Passages 1 16-1 17 

Pipes . . * 84-89 

Saturated 24-35 

Superheated 35 

Table of physical properties 37-41 

A'olume of 36 

Steam gauge. Bourdon's spring 18 

When to test 19 

Steam anding apparatus 417-420 

Steel,, As a material for boilers 57 

Stoker. The Victor 449-460 

Supplementary reservoir 644 

Straight air reducing valve 654-656 

Swing check valves 363 



INDEX 819 

T 
Tables, Analysis of coal 21 

Efficiency of triple riveted butt joints 65 

Diameter and pitch of rivets for double riveted 

joint 61 

Diameters of rivets 59 

Joint efficiencies, by Dr. Thurston 62 

Lloyd's rules 61 

Pitch of rivets and efficiencies of joints 62 

Physical properties of steam 37-40 

Proportions and efficiencies of riveted joints. ... 60 
Proportions of double riveted lap and butt joints. 64 

Proportions of triple riveted butt joints 65 

Specific heat of various substances 27 

Weight of water at different temperatures 32 

Tandem compound '. 296-31 1 

Arrangement of cylinders and valves. ..... .297-298 

Breakdowns 301 

By-pass valves 299-300 

Distribution of steam in , 310 

Drifting 300-301 

Lubrication of 301 

Main objections to 296 

Operation, working simple 300 

Operation, working compound 300 

Requires careful handling 296-297 

Starting valves 298-299 

Testing rules for 301-310 

Tensile strength 56-57 

How ascertained 57-5^ 

What it means 5^-57 

Thermo-dynamic, First law of 217 



820 INDEX 

Throttle, Action of. 87-88 

Lever 88 

Location of 86-87 

Triple valve 544 

New York 605-613 

Functions of 544 

Parts of 545-548 

Plain type 545-548 

Quick-action type 55^-558 

U 
Unstayed surfaces, strength of 76 

V 

Vacuum, What it is 214 

How produced 214-215 

How measured 214 

Valve, D-slide, invention of 119 

Allen 185-187 

Advantages of 172 

Central position of 120 

Functions of 1 19-120 

How connected to stem 127-133 

Minimum travel of 156 

Over-travel of 122 

Setting, what it means 132 

Piston 161-172 

Semi-plug 168-171 

Richardson balanced 184-185 

Wilson balanced 172-183 

Young rotative 188-198 

Valve B 2 brake 633-644 

Duplex pressure controller 645 

Emergency position 642 



^ INDEX 821 

Graduating position 641 

Parts of 643-644 

Release and straight air application 639 

Release position 637 

Running position 638-640 

Valves, By-pass 327-328 

Intercepting 313 

Operating 316 

Poppet 316 

Relief 332 

Separate exhaust 320-323 

Testing high and low pressure 302 

Valve gear 125-126 

Indirect 127-133 

Vauclain compound 262-263 

Air valves 271 

Cross-head 268-269 

Cylinders of 263-264 

Distribution of steam in 265 

Hollow A^alve stem 271 

Operation of 272-278 

Pass-by valve 270-271 

Piston 269-270 

Repairs on 278-282 

Suggestions for running 282-284 

Tractive power 285 

Water relief valves 272 

Victor locomotive stoker 449 

Accidents to 465-466 

Advantage in use of 450-451 

Care of at terminals 463-464 

How to regulate 459 

Operation of 456-460 



822 INDEX ' 

W 

Warning port 541 

Water, Boiling point of . 33 

Composition of 31 

Weight per cubic foot 32 

Walschaert valve gear , .748-772 

Adjustment of valve with 75^-753 

Construction of 750-752 

Laying out of 754-756 

Motion of 750 

Weight of y66-y6y 

Westinghouse, Automatic air brake 511 

Air pump 513-524 

Air pump governor 525-528 

Automatic oil cup 583-585 

D-8 brake valve 530-533 

Engineer's brake valve 528-533 

F-6' brake valve 541-543 

G-6 brake valve 541-543 

• Graduating valve 553-554 

New plain triple valve 564 

Pressure retaining valve 564-565 

Plain triple valve 562-563 

Quick-action triple valve 556-558 

Straight air brake 563 

Triple valve , 544-548 

Westinghouse L triple valve 781-800 

Work, Definition of 217 

Negative 235 

Unit of 217 

V 

Young rotative valve 188-198 

Z 

Zero, Absolute 216 



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ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY 

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The Calculation of Horse 
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By L. ELUOTT BROOKES 

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"The Automobile Hand-Book," Etc. 

Size, 5x7%. 80 Pages, Illustrated. Cloth, 75 Cente 



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Kules for plotting steam engine diagrams 
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of Compression and Combustion Chamber Dimensions, Indicator Diagrams of 
Steam Engines and Explosive Motors, also tables of Average Steam Pressure, 
Areas of Circles, Squares of Diameters of Circles, Natural Logarithms of Num- 
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of Numbers, and Mensuration of Surface and Volume. 




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Locomotive Fireman's Boiler 
==^^= Instructor === 

By CALVIN F. SWINGLE, M. E. 



THE first pages of this book are devoted 
to the fireman's duties, as pertains to 
getting his engine ready for the trip, 
how he should perform his duties whilst out 
on the road, and what his portion of the work 
of taking care of the locomotive is at the end 
of the run. This book not only tells the fire- 
man WHAT he should do, but tells him how 
the work may be best accomplished. Every 
detail of the locomotive fireman's work re- 
ceives attention. The action of the draft, the 
best method of regulating the same, also a 
complete description of the construction and 
operation of the various devices for creating 
a draft in a locomotive, all receive attention. 
Within the past ten years a large number of 
labor-saving appliances have been attached 
to the locomotive. Among these we may men- 
tion the mechanical stoker, of which there 
are several kinds, each having its own partic- 
ular merit. Lubricators of all standard makes. The various devices 
for burning fuel oil on oil burning locomotives, mechanical bell ringers, 
etc. All are fully described and illustrated. The subject of combustion 
of fuels is thoroughly handled in a way which easily brings it within the 
comprehension of the dullest mind. All of the different types of modern 
locomotive boilers, including the water tube boilers used on some of the 
roads in Europe, are each fully described and their construction clearly 
illustrated. The proper method of bracing and staying the locomotive 
boiler is treated upon at length. The fireman should be thoroughly 
f amihar with the construction of the throttle and the dry pipe, and the 
route of the steam in its passage from the dome of the boiler to the 
steam chests. This knowledge he will get by a study of this book. All 
of the various equipments of a locomotive, such as steam gauges, water 
glass and gauge cocks, water tank strainers, pop valves, superheaters, 
check valves, injectors, inspirators, etc., are described in detail and 
illustrated and the best and most reliable method of handling them is 
given. The book closes with a valuable collection of advice and in- 
formation for firemen and engineers also, which has been gleaned from 
the highest authorities in the mechanical department of railroading. 




SENT POSTPAID TO ANY ADDRESS ON RECEIPT OF PRICE. 
IGmo., 436 Pages, 160 Illustrations, One Folding Chart, 
Full Leather Binding, Round Corners, Red Edges, $1.50 



FREDERICK J. 

PUBUSHERS : : 



DRAKE & CO. 

: CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 



Farm Engines and Haw 
io Run Them WJS^^^^e 

By STEPHENSON, MAGGARD A CODY, Export Engineer* 



Fully illustrated withabout 75 beautiful 

woodcL.3. A complete instructor 

for the operator or amateur. 

The book first gives a simple 
description of every part of a 
boiler and traction or simple sta- 
tionary engine, with definitions 
of all the technical terms com- 
monly used. This is followed by 
over 80 test Questions covering 
every point that precedes. Then 
come simple and plain directions 
to the young engineer as to how 
to set up and operate his engine 
and boiler, followed by questions 
and answers as to what should be 
done in every conceivable diffi- 
culty that may arise, covering 
such subjects as scale in the boiler, economical firing, sparks, 
pressure, low water and danger of explosions, lining and 
gearing the enriiie, setlir.g the valves, oiling, working injector 
and pump, lacing and putting on belts, etc. There are two 
chapters on Farm Engine Economy, giving the theory of the 
steam engine, especially in its practical applications to secur- 
ing economy of operation. Chapter XII, describes "Different 
Types of Enrines," including stationary, compound, Corliss 
and high speed engines, and all the leading makes of traction 
engines wilh an illustration of each. Also chapter on gasoline 
engines and how to run them, and another on how to run a 
threshing machine. The book closes with a variety of useful 
recipes and practical suggestions and tables, and 175 questions 
and answers often given in examinations for engineer's license. 
Beautifully illustrated with plans, etc. 

12/10 CLOTH. PRICE $i.oo. 




Sent prepaid to any address upon receipt of ; 

Frederick J. Drake & Co., Publishers 



CONTRACTORS 
CARPENTERS 



IT IS TO YOUR 
ADVANTAGE 

to order a dozen or 
more designs to have in your 
office to show customers and 
prospective builders. We 
furnish cuts of any house in 
this book for your letter and 
bill heads, envelopes and 
cards for 

PRICE 

One Inch Cuts . . $1.00 
, Two Inch Cuts . . $7.50 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE 
AND COMPANY 

Publishers of Self -Educational Works 
CHICAGO, ILL. 



A BOOK EVERY EXGINELK ^ND ELECTRICIAN 
SHOULD HAVE IN HIS POCKET. A COxMPLETE 
ELECTRICAL REFERENCE LIBRARY IN ITSELF 

NEW EDITION 
"Bhe Handy Vest-Pocket 

ELECTRICAL 
DICTIONARY 

BT WM. L. WEBER, M.E. 

ILLUSTRATED 

CONTAINS upwards of 4.800 words, 
terms and phrases employed in the 
electrical profession, with itheir 
definitions given in the most concise, 
lucid and comprehensive manner. 

The practical business advantage 
and the educational benefit derived 
from the ability to at once understand 
the meaning of some term involving 
the description, action or ftmctions of 
a machine or apparatus, or the physi- 
cal nature and cause of certain phe- 
nomena, cannot be overestimated, and 
will not be, by the thoughtful assidu- 
ous and ambitious electrician, because 
he knows that a thorough understand- 
ing, on the spot, and in the presence 
of any phenomena, effected by the aid 
of his little vest-pocket book of refer- 
ence, is far more valuable and lasting 
in its imi^ression upon the mind, than, 
any memorandum which he might 
make at the time, with a view to the 
future consultation of some volumin- 
ous standard textbook, and which is 
more frequently neglected or forgotten 
than done. 

The book is of convenient size for 
carrying in the vest pocket, being only 
258 inches by 5H nches, and ^ inch 
thick; 224 pages, illustrated, and 
bound in two different styles : 

New Edition. Cloth, Red Edges, Indexed . . 25c 
New Edition. Full Leather, Gold Edges, Indexed, 50c 

Sold by booksellers generally or sent postpaid to any address upon receipt 
of price. 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. 




PUBLISHERS 



CHICAGO. 



ILUNOIS. 



HOUSE PLAN SUPPLEMENT 



PERSPECTIVE VIEWS 
AND FLOOR PLANS 



OF 



Twenty-five Low and 
Medium Priced Houses 



Full and Complete Working Plans and Specifications of any of 
these houses will be mailed at the low prices named, on the same 
day the order is received. 



OTHER PLANS 

We illustrate in "Practical Uses of the Steel Square," Vol. I; 
''Practical Uses of the Steel Square," Vol. II; and "Modern 
Carpentry," 75 other plans, 25 in each book, none of which are 
duplicates of those we illustrate herein. 

For further information, address 

Thi Publishers. 



Send All Orders for Plans to 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. 

Publishers 
CHICAGO, : : : : U. S. A, 



RD 3 a 




.5^"^ 



'^ ^^^euSTINE 



,VrfX9i ^^32084 






